Religious – It seems to me . . .

The Christian Layman’s Call to Service

It Seems to Me:

The Christian Layman’s Call to Service

By Bob Beanblossom

22 June 2021

I grew up in a church that strongly supported world missions. In those days, the ladies of the church would meet to “roll bandages” from torn strips of cotton sheets for our missionaries where medical supplies were in short supply. This simple recurring act of service gave substance and relevance to missions for a young boy.

I understood the Great Commission (Matthew 28:18-20) to be a call to foreign service for a few missionaries and a call for support from the home-front for the rest of us. Today I have a far different, and I trust, more accurate understanding of what that mandate actually means.

Mark also recorded the familiar words of our risen Savior: “And He said unto them, Go ye into all the world, and preach the Gospel to every creature” (Mark 16:15). Somehow, I didn’t connect Acts 1:8 with Christ’s Commission: “But ye shall receive power, after that the Holy Ghost is come upon you: and ye shall be witnesses to Me both in Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the uttermost part of the earth” (Acts 1:8).

As I learned that the Scripture is a whole, not just a collection of “key verses,” and “proof texts,” my understanding of His complete message improved. I learned that I am among the “ye” called to serve as certainly as any missionary sent by a local church to some far-away land. My field—my Jerusalem--begins where I am standing and extends to my family, friends, and casual contacts. My mission field is where I am.

The call to be a layman in the service of his Savior is not a lesser call than to the ministry, but a different one that encompasses the majority of Christians. In the context of our local churches, we hold the solution to the problems of the world in the pages of our Bibles, and we are commanded to share that Good News with our world, beginning with our own homes and extending to every reach of our personal worlds.

The Mystery of the Cross

It seems to me that we sometimes short-change the cross as we hurry through our lives, too busy doing to take time to consider the gift of our own salvation.

Martin Luther’s theology never left sight of the cross. He explained it as a mystery and as a scandal.

The mystery is that the Creator gave Himself over to Creation that He might become the propitiation for the very sins from which Creation could not save itself.

The scandal is that the vert best that Creation could do was kill the Creator, the Creator that it didn’t even recognize.

In Time, Christ was tried, beaten, crucified, and buried. I don’t know what that looked like to an all-powerful unchanging God in Eternity.

But, when thy converged—Creation and the Creator in Time and Eternity—God the Son emerged victorious over sin, death, and Hell to the everlasting glory of the Father, and offered eternal salvation to the very Creation that crucified Him.

Maybe we like Luther should spend a little more time humbled at the foot of the cross, as we realize that we are part of the Creation who crucified our very own Savior, even as we are the benefactors of that salvation.

From my friends Larry and Linda Sparks: Here are the words to and a link to: “We Have Seen His Glory,” by The Acappela Company: https://youtu.be/9qeKNdAdGhc

He fed the thousands who did not have bread (Luke 9:10-17)
I saw him bringing people back from the dead (Luke 8:49-56)
He drove out demons from the demon-bound (Luke 8:26-39)

And taught us how to walk on holy ground

He made the leper’s skin like new (Luke 17:11-19)
The storm dissipated when he told it to (Luke 8:22-25)
Took jars of water turned it into wine (John 2:1-11)
The Savior even healed this heart of mine

We have seen His glory
We have seen His glory
We have seen His glory
The one and only son

I was there the day when the dove came down (Matthew 3:16-17)
Saw soldiers with thorns to make His crown (Matthew 27:28-29)
Felt the whole earth quake, darkness on the land (Matthew 27:51-55)
After he was dead, he came to life again (Matthew 28:2-10)

I was there when he said that he couldn’t stay
Was on the Mount of Olives watching Him fly away (Luke 24:44-53)
In the upper room with power, the Spirit came
To give us guidance as we declare His name

We have seen His glory
We have seen His glory
We have seen His glory
The one and only son

I see how he works in our lives today
Through the things not explained any other way
I have known his guidance and I understand
The contentment shown by His loving hand

I can see Him working in His family
Who are clearly following their destiny
I can feel his power in their unending love
An awesome power coming from above above

We have seen His glory
We have seen His glory
We have seen His glory
The one and only son

We have seen the glory of the Son

And, from Allen Webber, “The Mystery of Divine Humiliation” by John Stainer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSZ8O3TOcxw

Cuban Hindus: The Potential for Christian Outreach

LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY

Unreached People Group Project: Reaching Cuban Hindus

Submitted to Dr. Porfirio Rodriguez

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of

GLST 500-D 04

Spring 2018

Global Studies Survey

Robert Beanblossom

8 May 2018

Contents

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………….1

Background ……………………………………………………………………………...2

The Cuban Hindu People Group ………………………………………………….2

A Brief History of Cuba …………………………………………………………..3

Language in Cuba ………………………………………………………………...6

Cuban Culture …………………………………………………………………….6

The Cuban Economy ……………………………………………………………..7

Religion in Cuba …………………………………………..……………………..8

The Family in Cuba ……………………………………………………………..10

Survey of Missions Work …………………………………………………..………….10

History of Cuban Missions ……………………………………………………...10

Current Status of Cuban Missions ……………………………………………....14

Challenges to the Cuban Hindu Mission Project ………………………………..16

Present Strategies ………………………………………………………………..18

Proposed Strategy ………………………………………………………….……….….19

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………...27

Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………….28

Introduction

The Hindu population in the Republic of Cuba is a people group unreached by evangelical Christians. With relations between Cuba and the U. S. “normalized” to some extent,¹ this is an opportune time to help mobilize Cuban Christians, especially converted Cuban Hindus, to reach these people.

Other than population size, data is largely unavailable.² The dearth of data neither eliminates the need to reach this group nor prohibits establishing an efficient working plan to accomplish that goal.

This paper will by necessity begin with a survey to establish basic parameters such as identifying population centers, occupations, family structure, social institutions, and the spectrum of Hinduism practiced.³ This work will be administered and coordinated by a mission board using short-term mission activities as well as missionary resources “on the ground” in Cuba.

The intermediate goal is the creation of a self-sustaining ongoing program within Cuban Christianity to evangelize this unreached people group. It will have the support of the American mission board for technical support as well as the provision of short- and long-term missionary presence as needed. The result will be the salvation of lost souls who are currently without the Gospel.

It is time for American missions to help reach Cuban Hindus with the Gospel by assisting

and supporting a Cuban inreach program augmented by converted Hindu Christians.

Background

Cuba is an island nation located in the Caribbean Sea 90 miles south of the United States and nestled within a ring of islands that includes the Bahamas, Hati and the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, and the Cayman Islands. It is the largest island in the Caribbean. The map shows the island and its geographic relationship with its neighbors.⁴ The capitol, Havana (population 1.4 million), is one of 19 cities of over 130-thousand people.

The Cuban Hindu People Group

The Hindu population of Cuba is largely invisible to the outside world. The Joshua Project considers them an unreached people group by evangelistic Christians who by and large do not even know that they exist.⁵ Listed in census data as “South Asian, general,” their count is 35 thousand of an island population of 11.4 million.⁶ The World Population Review does not recognize a Cuban Indian or Hindu population.⁷ They do not appear in histories, narratives, business reports, or religious documents. This report will by necessity describe Cuba in broad brush strokes that will provide little information on the Cuban Hindus. The challenge of this project is to use available data to formulate a plan that begins with gathering data and assessing local resources to develop a roadmap for a full-fledged inreach into the Hindu population.

Rather than voluntary immigrants, Indian Hindus were part of the British colonial program to provide “indentured laborers” for the sugar cane plantations. A cheap labor source was needed after the British abolished the African slave trade throughout the Empire in 1833, but some 400 thousand illegal African slaves and indentured Indian Hindu workers were still “imported” during this period.⁸ Hindus were brought from Punjab to Dhaka in North India and Madras in South India.⁹ While the title for the laborers changed, their working conditions did not. Unlike the African slaves, Hindus who completed the terms of their indenture could seek work in the open economy including government work if they officially embraced Christianity.¹⁰

A Brief History of Cuba

Cuba, before the European era, was home to Mesoamerican cultures that were in fierce competition with each other, often resulting in bloody takeovers and genocide. In 1492 Columbus arrived, claiming the entire island for Spain.¹¹ By 1514 the first European settlement introduced the local population to a new threat: Spanish Catholic missionaries came to save their souls so that the politicians and businessmen could enslave their bodies.¹² European diseases almost wiped out the native populations. Another surge of of Spanish immigrants in the 1800s continued this European supremacy while suppressing the local labor class. The “need” for plantation labor brought the African slave-trade to the island in 1762.¹³

When other Caribbean peoples rebelled and gained their independence, Cuba was an anomaly, continuing on the Spanish for their economic needs. Other European countries entered the economy in 1818 when the ports were opened to all nations. The growing sugar trade with Europe was enhanced by the American Civil War that disrupted American sugar production and increasing the “need” for low cost labor.¹⁴

Internal unrest fueled by continuing Spanish domination ultimately led to a series of wars for independence between 1868 and 1902, as “economic elites” who wanted more “control over their own political and economic futures,” incited the labor class.¹⁵ The Hindu population remains transparent.

The wars for independence did not bring the peace and prosperity that the patriots had sought. Political, social, and economic reforms failed as unrest ebbed and flowed. American interests, dominating from 1859 through 1902, peaked in the Spanish-American war in 1898, when the American warship USS Maine exploded in the Cuban harbor.¹⁶ America was the victor, and thousands of Cubans in Spanish concentration camps were set free as President Roosevelt returned the island to the Cuban people, while reserving certain “privileges,”¹⁷ including American occupation.¹⁸ Post-occupation Cuba was left with a vastly improved infrastructure and economy,¹⁹ but independence for the next half-century was more mockery than fact. The U.S. recognized great economic and strategic value in the island and the imposed American foreign policy that supported local leadership that that would provide stability rather than capitalism and individual rights. Racist American business and immigration policies favored whites over local mulattoes, Afro-Cubans, and Hindus. American tourism grew into a major industry rivaling sugar without the adverse effects of world market price swings.²⁰ A stable economy was still only a dream.

Following another economic downturn and political upheaval, Fulgencio Batista came to power with the support of the U. S. His reforms failed and political ferment continued.²¹ This cycle was the status quo as Cuban sugar, cigars, rum, and the tourist trade brought revenue into this island that still required imports for many of its needs. The Pax Cuba was destroyed when Fidel Castro displaced Ernesto Che Guevara, embracing Communism and aligning his dictatorship with the USSR. The Cold War came to American shores when Castro allowed Soviet ICBMs to be emplaced. This brought Cubans refugees of all social strata into the U.S.²² Relations between Cuba and the United States have been “normalized” by an Executive Order of President Obama, but with ongoing stress.²³ The door is open to renew relations with Cuban churches to help them to continue the evangelize their nation and beginning a work among the Hindus.²⁴

The Hindu population remains lost in silence, largely transparent to the outside world.

Language in Cuba

The nation has no official national language, but Cuban Spanish is the predominant lingua franca for about 90% of the population. This Spanish is strongly influenced by African languages and dialects. Other ethnic languages in use include Haitian Creole, Lucimi, Galician, and Corsican. The opening of the borders has resulted in the return of tourist and commercial languages including English, French, and more.²⁵ Hindi is the primary language of the Hindu population.²⁶

Cuban Culture

Having passed through four historically important generations, the culture of Cuba is rich and diverse,²⁷ “built from Spanish, African, French, and Asian influences.” The people are “passionate, gregarious, resourceful, hard working, and full of life.”²⁸ Society is largely urban, with three-fourths of the population living in cities where “life tend(s) to revolve around the porches, balconies, and verandas of the houses or apartment-style living spaces.”²⁹

Havana’s night-life once successfully competed with Miami, bringing American dollars into the economy. This changed with the coup by Fidel Castro and his close association with the USSR. Upon Castro’s retirement in 2008, his brother Raul assumed power and implemented limited economic and political reforms.³⁰

In the wake of renewed governmental relations and open borders, we find that the island nation did rather well in some respects in spite of American efforts, largely through their close association with the USSR before the fall of that nation: “Cuba’s population enjoys a life expectancy rate of nearly 79 years and boasts a literacy rate of 100%.”³¹ There is a dichotomy between this and living conditions as the statistics mask an impoverished nation where the working-class people suffer from ongoing shortages in goods. The contribution of Hindus to

Cuban culture is not known.

The Cuban Economy

As has been seen, the Cuban economy is a driving force in its history. Cuba depends upon outside sources for much of its necessities. The American embargo was not honored by the United Nations and many nations who conducted trade during the post-Cold War period. Castro’s Cuba was never able to produce exports to balance its trade deficit, and to provide needed foreign currency to pay the import bills. The fall of the USSR removed a substantial amount of aid from that nation, causing increasing problems for the Communist government. Sugar and its offspring rum, tobacco, rum, and minerals continue to be the primary exports. Excepting some major foreign investments, most economic enterprises are still owned by the state.³² Pat Gordon of the Fundamental Baptist World-Wide Mission board, states that Hindus have come into the area in recent times as businessmen, finding a niche in the Cuban economy.³³

Tourist traffic is increasing as Americans rediscover the tropical climate and hedonistic lures of Havana. In this Information Age, borders are more permeable and cultural integration of a larger scale than at any time in the past. Cuba ranks 83 among 201 nations in internet usage

with over 3.7 million users with an annual growth rate of 4%.³⁴

Religion in Cuba

Cuban religion has been “heavily determined by its history as a commercial entrepot and sugar colony, and later as a republic with loose immigration regulations.” The “ongoing encounters of indigenes, Europeans, Africans, Chinese, Jews, and North Americans, among others, resulted in an intense process of interchange, adaptation, borrowing, and overlapping, as well as the abandonment of some beliefs and practices in favor of the construction of more syncretic ones. All religions. . . have been characterized by a high degree of flexibility and permeability.”³⁵

The Communist dictatorship has changed the face of religion. Perhaps surprisingly, “Article 8 of the Cuban Constitution guarantees freedom of religion.”³⁶ Socialized education, economy, and health care that “eroded the role of the church in Western Europe (has) done nothing to diminish the spread of the gospel in contemporary Cuba.³⁷ Prior to the revolution, 90% of the population claimed to be Christian (including perhaps 10% practicing), with the remaining (and some of those listed as Christian) practicing various forms of Afro-Cuban religions. Other estimates suggest that “about half of all (pre-Castro) Cubans were agnostic, that slightly more than 40% were Christian, and that less than 2% practiced Afro-Cuban religions.”³⁸ The Castro regime effectively closed the country to Protestant missions. Today, among the 11.4 million inhabitants are 56.2% professing Christians, of whom 82.8% are Catholic and 13.6% are Protestant. Lost among the remainder is an unreached Hindu population of 35 thousand, of whom only 3% claim to be Christians.³⁹

The Catholic Church continues to be a major force in Cuba.⁴⁰ In 1962, the Castro

government closed “more than 400 Catholic schools, charging that they spread dangerous beliefs.” This was reversed in 1991, and “the constitution was amended to characterize the state as secular instead of atheist.”⁴¹ The visit of Pope John Paul III in 1998 was intended to revive participation in the Church in an improving relationship with the state.

Protestant Christianity is experiencing a grass-roots revival that is reflected in the growth of the number of reproducing house-churches (casas cultos).

The Family in Cuba

Family is important in this island nation. In the tropical setting, family and community are integrated by an open-air lifestyle that brings life to the streets for business and relaxation. Cuban civil society had developed into one of the most advanced in Latin America prior to the Revolution. Many civic and other community organizations that existed prior to the 1959 revolution survived as attempts by the government to regulate these organizations largely failed.

Survey of Missions Work

At the risk of failing to meet the formal requirements to develop a plan to evangelize a well-documented people group, the need of this overlooked group to hear the Gospel calls for attention. It will show that data is valuable but not an essential element in a start-up program that recognizes and addresses it. This paper will be presented to the Fundamental Baptist Worldwide Mission board at their request. This board has history of service in Cuba that was disrupted by

the Castro government, but reopened last year.

History of Cuban Missions

“The Caribbean, with its multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-cultural background, has been a mission field for the past 500 years,” according to Las G. Newman, who laments that the area “has been greatly criticized for losing its vision for missions.” God and these Christians have not been passive, “The Caribbean has changed from being a mission field to being a mission

force.”⁴² A Christianity Today field survey found that, “most of its 12 million inhabitants need Christ.” The team found that while the nation is seeing tangible benefits such as hurricane relief a less tangible but more important indicator is the growth of casas cultos as Cuban Christians have responded to the Great Commission.⁴³

During the British Colonial period missionaries were active in the Empire, including British holdings in the Caribbean. These missionaries were active among the Hindus, and their efforts to “convert” them were helped by the requirement that access to government jobs required a conversion to Christianity.⁴⁴

The modern wave of missionaries to Cuba “arrived first in July 1898 in scattered numbers, in the company of an army of conquest, and subsequently in successive waves during military occupation,” that resulted in representation by “more than a score of Protestant denominations.” Some, like the Nazarenes, entered the area as Pentecostals and later merged with the Nazarene Church (in 1915), beginning their work in Trinidad (that boasts a major Hindu population), moving on to Cuba in 1902. This writer has been to the Nazarene mission school in Trinidad but found no evidence of a Hindu outreach. Others, like Baptists, came with the U.S. occupation in 1898 and following. Unlike the Nazarenes, the Baptists represent a variety of groups such as the American Baptists, the Southern Baptist Convention, independent Baptists, and others.⁴⁵ An early attempt at an overall mission plan was an interdenominational conference held in Cienfuegos in 1902. The plan apparently did not include the Hindu population.

The Cuban evangelical church has done exceptionally well in the absence of foreign missionaries. “For 20 years Protestant churches in Communist Cuba have been multiplying at an unprecedented pace.”⁴⁶ In spite of strict regulations and recurring crackdowns and persecutions, the church is thriving through local efforts that remind one of the first century Christian explosion that “turned the world upside down” (Acts 17:6).⁴⁷ As Christians witnessed to and won for Christ their neighbors and friends, restrictions on existing churches and prohibitions on new ones led to the establishment of numerous casas cultos under an authorization by Fidel Castro in the early 1990s.⁴⁸ Casas cultos are demonstrated to a “reproducible method for harvesting . . . interested seekers. . . (that) freed the church from physical limitations and thrust the gospel witness into the community.⁴⁹ Nelson and Garrett estimate that this national revival has led to a population of “active evangelical believers” that is now 10% of the national population, all during the last decade of the 20th Century.⁵⁰

Missionary Steve James of the Independent Fundamental Baptist movement has been absent from Cuba for many years but is returning through the open door. He reports that the churches and leaders he left behind are doing quite well and plans to resume his assistance in church planting and worker training.⁵¹

Growth comes with a price. As the early church became perceived as a threat to governments and the Jewish hierarchy (1 Thess 2:14), the Communist authorities have expressed similar fears by targeting casas cultos since 2000, increasing their efforts in 2005 with strictly enforced “regulations aimed at curbing the growth.”⁵² Some churches have been closed.⁵³ Other church buildings have been destroyed, Christians have been harassed and arrested and imprisoned on baseless accusations.⁵⁴

It is interesting that a quick search of the internet lists “Cuba Mission Trips” for hire, perhaps in lieu of a family vacation. The purpose, scope, and mission of these trips, or their coordination with and impact on missional and local evangelism, has not been evaluated. Ads include promises that the experience will be “life-changing,” and that one can become involved in “God’s destiny for the nation of Cuba.”⁵⁵

The discussion of evangelical missions among Cuban Hindus begins with a review of the maturing of Western missions in India. Originally, “Western denomnilizationism was transplanted to India and little of India’s heritage was expressed in church life. . . . (but now) Cross-cultural missions and contextualization principles are now evident.”⁵⁶ The overthrow of British colonialism in India warns that, “Despite a powerful movement towards Westernization (in Indian culture), Hindus feel a strong aversion towards foreign religions.”⁵⁷ This is an essential point to consider when planning inreach programs into the Hindu world. Although eluding definition by academics,⁵⁸ Hinduism is understood as an eclectic holistic lifestyle that is often self-contradictory and non-conformal with other Hindus. H. L. Richland says, Hinduism is a “dynamic theism that consistently affirms that finally there is only one God yet sees myriad manifestations of that God under various names and guises.”⁵⁹ The Christian must recognize that this culture has permeated many aspects of Western thinking including ecumenical Christianity, displacing the Gospel with a very Hindu acceptance of all religions as co-effective. The Hindu “one god” is not the God of Creation.

Current status

In spite of “poverty and government repression” or perhaps assisted by it, “Cuban churches are indisputably flourishing.”⁶⁰ As demonstrated by church growth without the assistance of outside missions, “Cubans want to have their own church and their own sense of identity.”⁶¹ As noted above, this is true of the worldwide Hindu population, and one would think, by extension, to those in Cuba. Evangelical local churches are flourishing while their outreach programs are doing the same. Amid a relaxation of oppressive regulation and enforcement that is more theoretical than practical, national registration and prohibitions against building churches by Protestant groups continues. The upside is that church growth is functionally a layperson activity as witnessing yields saved souls, leading to the formation of new casas cultos that in turn replicate themselves.⁶² There is local concern that a return to greater institutionalization may dampen this work of the Holy Spirit, and that an influx of different denominations and sects may confuse or confound the progress that is being made locally.⁶³

“The Joshua Project distinguishes 17 people groups in Cuba. The Cuban Hindu population is one of two unreached people groups in Cuba.⁶⁴ This small group of 35 thousand individuals is lost among the 11.4 million Cubans. The Joshua Project counts 3% who embrace Christianity, of which 0.2% (some 700 individuals) consider themselves to be evangelicals. This is an extremely small percentage relative to the national average of 56% of Cubans who profess Christianity, including 9% who are evangelicals.⁶⁵ Although researchers can state that, “Today it is impossible to ignore a marked revival of religious practice in Cuba. . . . This raises two questions: Where does it originate? What impact will it have on the totality of social relations?”⁶⁶ A 1980s survey “found that 85% of Cubans admitted some form of belief in, reliance on, or contact with the supernatural,” a statistic that comports with others we have seen. This same survey found that “no more than 16% belonged to organized religions,” and another 15% claimed to be confirmed atheists.⁶⁷ As we can see, even “standard” data is problematic.

Denominations are sending new or former missionaries. Steve James is one of those. After being called by the Spirit to Cuba and preparation and deputation within the independent Baptist movement, he moved to Cuba. After a scant 18 months he was forced to leave the country and return to America. An important part of his ministry was training a 19-year-old Cuban to become a local pastor. Following his exile, he heard nothing from the young man—until more than 10 years later when James received a series of emails from him. Arriving back in Cuba, James was pleased to see that his disciple had indeed carried on the work begun and expanded that included three new congregations. James is currently in and out of Cuba in

preparation for continuing the work in-country under the leadership of the Spirit.⁶⁸

Challenges

Immediate challenges exist. The political climate of Cuba can never be overlooked: it remains among the “world’s worst persecutors.”⁶⁹ The current Cuban evangelical Christian revival dates from 1990, according to Kurt Nelson and Bob Garrett.⁷⁰ Some have expressed a concern that well-meaning “short-term teams may (not) have the education and tools” to be effective and not counter-productive.⁷¹ Coordination and integration of these teams into ongoing operations to achieve specific goals seems to be a primary need in this area.

“The Hindu-Christian dialogue, in its present state (worldwide), demands both a deep experience of one’s own tradition and a sufficient knowledge of the other one. . . . (the context is) in the arena of life, the daily struggle. . . . (where we) meet the true ‘other’ not in an artificial milieu, but as a fellow-traveler in the concerns of real life.”⁷² Hinduism is an assimilative religion that recognizes and worships (in the idolatrous sense) many gods, including pantheistic and naturalistic gods. Christianity is accepted as one among many with Jesus accepted by some as another god. A challenge may exist if island Hindus have accepted the Afro-Cuban Paca Mama, or Earth Goddess, a deity held in varying import by scholars.⁷³

There is a Bible shortage in Cuba due to the long ban on import and printing, with an estimate of one Bible for every six Christians.⁷⁴ In 2015 Cuba ended the ban on printing Bibles, but still prohibits “modern translations,” such as the NIV, both in printing and distribution, according to Jardine Malado.⁷⁵ Bibles in Hindi, printed for India, are available, but authorization for importation will have to be sought. More information is needed on local Hindu dialects.

At this point, precise consideration of manpower and other field resources is premature,

with the challenge being to locate and describe the Hindu population and locate local workers called by God to work in this field.

Present strategies

Cuba is essentially a new field for American evangelical Christian missions as the doors are opened somewhat for the first time in decades. All outside efforts must be extremely cognizant that God has greatly blessed His work in this nation despite Communist rule and without the help of the Americans. Re-entry into this field mandates that American mission boards and missionaries return as advisors and assistants to the local Christian community. This is not our standard role and will be an uncomfortable role for folks accustomed to running things, especially when this new Christian population does not fit our mold, even though blessed by God. American mission boards and the missionaries they send into the existing revival within the Cuban population must be sensitive to the working of the Holy Spirit through local Christians over the past decades without them. The new American missionary must come “hat-in-hand” as a support person to the existing successful work. Remembering the long-term damage to the native (although not idyllic) native population of Cuba by Columbus and his crowd, it is noteworthy to consider the remarks of Octavio Javier: “In Cuba, they call people who come and start new ministries, ‘Christopher Columbus,”⁷⁶ While “social controls, discrimination, and occasional arrests” are part of the landscape, “Cuba’s new spiritual dynamic includes rapid casas cultos growth, evangelistic missions, relief work, and community development.”⁷⁷

Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk provide a good description of the local awakening. Even with the Papal visit,

Evangelicals now outnumber church-going Catholics. The 1,250 evangelical congregations in 1990 has increased to possibly 4,500 congregations and a possible 10,000 house groups in 54 denominations. A high proportion of the new Christians are young people.⁷⁸

There is no known work among the Hindu population. This provides a significant

potential workforce to reach their peers with the Gospel through prayer and personal

evangelism.⁷⁹

Proposed Strategy

The goal of this project is to bring the Good News to Cuban Hindus so that individual souls may be saved who will join with other Christians in new or existing casas cultos where they will grow, mature, and in turn, will merge with others to create la iglesia within communities; all ultimately self-governing, self-replicating, and self-sustaining. This work must be sensitive to the Hindu lifestyle, allowing development of la iglesia that is both biblical and indigenous to their culture.

We will consider five fundamental principles to reach this goal: (1) let the Holy Spirit lead; (2) while short-term workers may be interested volunteers, permanent workers must be called by the Spirit; (3) Cuban Christians, especially Christian Hindus, should be sought and encouraged to enlist in this mission; (4) individuals are won to Christ, not people groups; (5) the Gospel is always confrontational to the unsaved of any race, gender, creed, or other designator.

Principle 1

The Holy Spirit provides salvation for repentant sinners, and guidance and power for the saved. The Spirit, and the Spirit alone, is the program chairman, chief planning officer, and chief operating officer. The Spirit-Christian interface is one of prayer, fasting, and immersion in the Word of God (John 16:13): it is obedience to the Holy Spirit.

Principle 2

The Spirit is the leader and the job of the worker is to provide a human intersection with the unsaved, in this case the Cuban Hindu population. Short-term workers may be volunteers from the outside or Cuba. Permanent workers must be called by the Spirit (Eph 4:11).

Principle 3

Throughout the process, Cuban Christians, especially Hindu Christians and others familiar with the people group should be recruited, evaluated, and trained, initially through the mission board transitioning to a local organization. Workers should be “sent-out” in pairs into the Hindu community to begin their work (Luke 10:1), returning with feedback not only on successes and failures, but on Christian families willing to host house churches (Lu 10:17).

Principle 4

The format for personal evangelism should take note of Jesus’ approach with Nicodemus, the Pharisee, in John 3, and his very different one with the Samarian woman at the well in John 4. Whatever information field work provides will not overrule this essential principle. All workers must be open to the leadership of the Spirit as they individually (or in pairs) witness to individual Cuban Hindus. While preaching may become important as house churches are developed, broadside large-scale Christian evangelistic efforts in India suggest two unwanted outcomes early on: either Christianity is “accepted” and integrated into the pantheon of Hindu gods and religious practice, or the Hindu population led by the religious elite rebel and the outreach is bought to a sudden end (Mark 6:12). We also note here that Paul selected strategic points from which the churches he planted would naturally reach out and draw in people from that province.⁸⁰

Principle 5

The Gospel is confrontational (Matt 10:34), but resolution through salvation brings an enduring peace that “passeth all understanding” (Phil 4:7). If Christianity is “accepted” and integrated into the pantheon, the effort has failed. The God of creation is not one of the myriad of Hindu god-possibles. Jesus Christ did not come to be one with the world, but to call the lost of the world to repentance (Lu 19:10). If the general Hindu population rebels against the Christian message, individuals can still be reached. The scribes, Pharisees, and Sadducees railed against Jesus, but He continued to deal with the multitudes, one soul at a time. Two points must be constantly emphasized: the essentials of the Gospel must not be compromised or adulterated by co-mingling with local beliefs in order to “ease” the unsaved into salvation (Ex 34:14), and non-essential “gospel” of Western denominationalism must not be imposed on the new culture.

The operating system will be based upon a modified “strategy of the single method,” suggested by Larry Pate,⁸¹ and refined by Porfirio Rodriguez: this approach “understands the situation and the people,” and offers a “unique method” to achieve the goals for that project. It is one that “plans for every situation.”⁸² We will construct five practices upon the principles that are not necessarily serial but overlapping.⁸³

The first is evangelizing the lost. This requires preparation, planning, and execution that is empathetic and sensitive to the needs of each individual. In this project, preparation and planning are integrated into a cycle of field work that includes integration into the Hindu community led by local Christians; collecting information through short-term probes into the island population to locate and define the parameters of the Hindu population as plans are developed for a permanent work; and seeking Hindu Christians to mentor and enlist in this work. This should be planned in waves to return data for analysis and refinement of following probes. When workers are identified, training should begin that introduces the basic Christian principles and a plan of action presented. All phases include feedback and re-evaluation of successes and failures to improve and fine-tune the work as well as to communally seek the leadership and blessing of the Spirit (John 20:21).

The second is discipling new believers. This involves preparation on the part of the mission board and the witness. Witnesses must be trained in the scripture and be able to associate themselves or other Christians with new converts. Ideally this is a process that begins with casas cultos with strong early support from the mission crew, leading to larger groups where the Word is preached as regularly as possible. Converts should never be abandoned. Each should always have a comfortable refuge to find support in which the leader is careful not to allow the convert to “put him in the place of Christ.”⁸⁴ The goal of this close attention is to encourage spiritual growth in the convert and train him to be an effective replicating witness. Preparation for baptism with all that entails should be a developmental priority.

The third is training pastors and lay leaders. This includes the many things that these leaders need to live successful Christian lives and to transfer that lifestyle through the work of the Spirit to their flocks. This is time consuming and requires dedication and resources from the mission board as well as the student.

The fourth is church planting. As local conditions and the size and number of casas cultos increases, churches should be formed, supported by the mission board at whatever level is necessary, with a clear intent of ultimate local operation and control. William A. Smalley agrees that indigenous churches should be “self-governing, self-supporting, and self-propagating.” He warns, however, that to many in the Western missionary movement, the “self” in these terms is compromised by the projection of Western thought that is more cultural than biblical, reminding us of the questions that led to the Jerusalem Conference (cf. Acts 15). He suggests that missions provide support but stand apart from the movement. He states that indigenous churches “cannot be founded,” but must be spontaneously generated.⁸⁵ The basic concept of indigenous churches is central to this project, but we disagree with his theory of the spontaneous generation of Christians and their churches. If this theory were true, the Great Commission (Matt 28:18-20) would be unnecessary

The fifth is mobilization of the Hindu Christian community as witnesses for their Christ. Every Christian, every casas cultos, every church should, early on, become active evangelists. The Great Commission is for all Christians, and the recent history of the Cuban evangelical church shows how effective they are in proclaiming the message of salvation.

The many unknowns in this project is a bit daunting from an American perspective. We want every “I” dotted and every “T” crossed, but this is not necessarily God’s plan. Jonah certainly did not enter Nineveh with a full-blown plan (cf. Jonah 1-4) but ended up following the directions of the Holy Spirit, even if reluctantly, and found success on the Spirit’s terms.⁸⁶ Paul’s missionary trips did not employ anything resembling Western planning: he often altered his path to follow the leadership of the Holy Spirit.⁸⁷

As the strategy states, plans must have purpose founded in the goal, yet be dynamic, with applications updated as necessary by new data, feedback, and results. One prominent factor that has the potential to change the entire project is the unknown status of the 7 thousand Christian Hindus living in Cuba according to the Joshua Project.⁸⁸ Initial research “on the ground” may find that these Christians are well organized and fully functioning as both la iglesia and as witnesses within their own group.

Initially, local Christians and mission workers under the guidance of the mission board will be used to locate and survey this community, collecting data and identifying parameters as tools to develop a dynamic plan to reach these people, and to develop training and educational outlets. Mission board support will include the initial initiative, planning, and implementation support, training and education, financial seed money and other occasional assistance as needed, all with an intent to develop national workers and support leading to self-sufficiency where the mission board becomes a consultant and support, developing training and educational opportunities for the development of local leaders.

In the absence of local information, we look to the Hindu population in India and their relationship with the West where “the changing sociological structure of Indian society is as important to grasp as Hindu religious attitudes,” according to Richland. While studies show that individualism is on the rise within the Hindu ranks, they “remain deeply relational.”⁸⁹ Richland suggests that,

rather than calling the individual out of family and caste, the gospel needs to be spread over the bridges of God that are present in caste communications. Instead of calling people to the finished product of Western Christianity, the good news of the power and grace of God in Christ needs to be presented in terms and forms that are meaningful to Hindus.⁹⁰

The terminology must be clearly understood. A “finished product of Western Christianity” carries the connotation of a church transplanted from “back home” so that the resulting organization is comfortable to American missionaries. The intent of this proposal is to develop la iglesia as contextualized local entities that do not necessarily resemble that “church back home,” but it is essential that fundamental Christian precepts are not compromised into some sort of hybrid Hindu-Christian entity. The polytheistic nature of Hinduism accepts Jesus as one of a pantheon of gods, but not as the sole God. This path does not and cannot lead to salvation. It is anti-Scriptural. The singular deity of the God of Creation (Ex 20:2-4), the sinful nature of all men (Rom 5:12), the guilt of individual sin (Rom 3:23), redemption through Jesus Christ who is God the Son (John 3:16-17), cannot be melded into Hindu religious practice (Deut 6:4). They are mutually exclusive. To achieve this, local Hindu Christians should be integrated into planning and operation as early as possible. Practical leadership development is essential.

Anecdotal data collected from “the field,” will be used to design additional short-term probes to collect more rigorous data. Concurrently, partners will be sought among converted Cuban Hindus and other Christians to carry out the long-term work. The lack of data is not a fatal flaw, but a reminder that reaching lost souls is the work of the Holy Spirit (cf. Matt 28:18-20) who will prevail (Acts 19:20).

Due to the proximity of Cuba to the U.S., and the dynamic church within Cuba, both sources will be used for the short-term mission work that includes the initial survey and contact activities. Roger Peterson suggests that short-term missional forays that are purpose-driven and Spirit led are useful, but that “four of every five short-termers” are targeted to the “already churched or reached people groups.”⁹¹ He suggests a three-fold regimen for short-term missions (STM):

STM activity is not formational, these are not church-planting or mission-opening efforts, but rather support activities for current missional projects and programs;

STMs should “repent of self-sufficiency.” This is not a financial equation, but an operational mandate. Again, STMs should support and enhance existing missions;

3. Re-designate “short-term mission trips,” to “short-term missions. Instead of a field trip, each is a mission has a goal, a plan to implement that goal, the resources to accomplish the goal, and a review plan to assess success and improve the next STM.⁹²

As a final note, this project is a spiritual outreach to the lost souls of the Hindu population of Cuba. It is not a social, economic, or political rescue mission. As C. Peter Wagner muses, “While we must not neglect the social responsibility, in my opinion, we must never let it get in the way of soul-winning evangelism.”⁹³

Conclusion

At the risk of deviating from the formal requirements to develop a plan to evangelize a well-documented people group, the obvious needs of this overlooked group calls for attention. The eternal souls of some 35 thousand Cuban Hindus are at risk: over 780 Cuban Hindus die each day without Christ.⁹⁴ It also illustrates that front-end data is valuable but not essential if considered in the planning. The only “givens” in this project is that there is an overall Hindu population of 35 thousand, of whom. Although some research shows that the current “revival today reaches across the western Christian world and far beyond it,” it also carries a warning: “The boom of the ‘new religious movements’ does not supplant the secular movement, but rather intersects with it.”⁹⁵

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countries/CU.

Madasamy Thirumalai, Sharing Your Faith with a Hindu (Minneapolis: Bethany House, 2002), 19-27.

⁴

“Cuba,” maps.nationmaster.com., accessed 7 May 2018, https://search.aol.com/aol/image;_ylt=

AwrE19C9ZPBalJAAojFpCWVH;_ylu=X3oDMTByMDgyYjJiBGNvbG8DYmYxBHBvcwMyBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzYw--?q=cuba+map&v_t=comsearch#id=2&iurl=http%3A%2F%2Fimages.nationmaster.com%2Fimages

%2Fmotw%2Famericas%2Fcuba_rel94.jpg&action=click.

⁵

Ibid.

⁶

Joshua, npn.

⁷

“Cuba Population 2018,” World Population Review, npn, accessed 15 April 2018, http://

worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cuba-population/.

⁸

Raj Patel, “Struggles of the Caribbean Hindus,” Sanskriti (12 June 2014), npn, accessed 7 May 2018, http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/history/struggles-caribbean-hindus/.

⁹

History, 25-26.

¹⁰

Struggles, npn.

¹¹

Atlas del Mexico Prehispanico. Revista Arqueoligia mexicana. Numero especial 5 (Julio de 2000). Raices/Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia: Mexico.

¹²

Clifford L. Statten, The History of Cuba (NY: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2003), 13.

¹³

“Cuban Population,” Havana-Guide.com, npn, accessed 18 April 2018, http://www.havana-guide.com/history-of-cuba.html.

¹⁴

History, 22-23.

¹⁵

Ibid., 30.

¹⁶

History, 31-33.

¹⁷

Population, npn.

¹⁸

History, 40.

¹⁹

Ibid., 40-41.

²⁰

Ibid., 45-47, 54.

²¹

Ibid, 62-63.

²²

Ibid.

²³

Relations, npn.

²⁴

Joshua, npn.

²⁵

“Countries: Cuba,” Spain Exchange Country Guide, studycountry.com, npn. Accessed 7 May 2018, http://www.studycountry.com/guide/CU-language.htm.

²⁶

Joshua, npn.

²⁷

“Culture of Cuba, Maps of the World, npn, accessed 7 July 2018, https://www.mapsofworld.

com/cuba/culture-of-cuba.html.

²⁸

History, 4.

²⁹

Ibid., 4.

³⁰

Jardine Malado, “Cuba Bars Ministry from Distributing NJV Bibles,” Christian Today (4 April 2018): npn, accessed 1 May 2018, https://christiantoday.com/article/cuba-bars-ministry-from-distributing-niv-bibles/

128033.htm.

³¹

Jason Mandryk, ed., Operation World, 7th edition (Colorado Springs: Biblica, 2010), p. 291.

³²

History, 5-7.

³³

Pat Gordon, VP of Development and Recruitment for Fundamental Baptist World-Wide Mission, personal conversation, 29 April 2018.

³⁴

“Internet Users by Country (2016),” InternetLiveStats.com: npn, accessed 1 May 2018, file:///F:/

Liberty%20University/GLST%20500/Research%20paper%20data/Internet%20Users%20by%20Country%20(2016).html.

³⁵

Margaret E. Crahan, “Cuba: Religion and Civil Society,” Social Research: An International Quarterly, Vol. 84, No. 2 (Summer 2017): npn, accessed 7 May 2018, https://muse-jhu-edu.ezproxy.liberty.edu/article/668227.

³⁶

“Cuban Religions,” Havana-Guide (2014), npn. Accessed 16 April 2018, file:///F:/Liberty%20

University/GLST%20500/Research%20paper%20data/Cuban%20Religions.html.

³⁷

Kurt Nelson and Bob Garrett, “A Church Planting Movement in Cuba,” Mission Frontiers: Church Planting Movements (March-April 2011): 25, accessed 1 May 2018, http://www.missionfrontiers.org/issue/article/a-church-planting-movement-in-cuba.

³⁸

“Religion in Cuba,” GlobalSecurity.org, npn, accessed 18 May 2018, https://www.globalSecurity

.org/military/world/cuba/religion.htm.

³⁹

Joshua, npn.

⁴⁰

Cuban Religions, npn.

⁴¹

Ibid.

⁴²

Las G. Newman, “The Caribbean’s Response to the Great Commission,” biblicalstudies.org.uk: 18, accessed 7 May 2018, biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/cjet/01-1_16.pdf.

⁴³

Timothy Morgan, “Back to Cuba,” Christianity Today, (9 July 2009): npn, accessed 2 May 2018, https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2009/july/24.7.html.

⁴⁴

Struggles, npn.

⁴⁵

Louis A. Perez, Jr., “Protestant Missionaries in Cuba: Archival Records, Manuscript Collections, and Research Prospects,” Latin American Research Review, Vol. 27, no. 1 (1992): 105, accessed 7 May 2018, https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/stable/pdf/2503719.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A8f192ffda461ff89

adb727258b9c5d7f.

⁴⁶

Church Planting, 25.

⁴⁷

All Scripture from the King James Version of the Bible unless otherwise noted.

⁴⁸

Discovering, 25.

⁴⁹

Jim Stack, “What We Have Found,” MIS 9400: Facilitating Church Planning Movements, Columbia International University (Jan 2007), npn.

⁵⁰

Ibid.

⁵¹

Personal conversations with Steve James during a Missions Conference held at the Atoka First Baptist Church in Atoka, TN (April 2017).

⁵²

“Cuba: Fidel Implodes, The Gospel Explodes,” Voice of the Martyrs (October 2002), 13.

⁵³

“Christianity in Cuba,” Open Door International (2007), 3, accessed 1 May 2018, http://sb.od.org./

index.php?supppage=cuba_2.

⁵⁴

“Prisoner of Faith: Pastor Carlos Lamelas, Cuba,” Release International (2006), 1, accessed 1 May 2018, http://www.releaseinternational.org/media/download_gallery/Prisoners%20of%Faith%20Alert%20June2006.

⁵⁵

⁵⁶

H. L. Richmond, “Christ Movements in the Hindu World,” Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader, 4th ed., Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 590.

⁵⁷

Ibid.

⁵⁸

Ibid.

⁵⁹

Ibid.

⁶⁰

Lee, Morgan“When the Saints Go Marching Into Cuba and Myanmar,” Christianity Today (16 March 2015) npn. Accessed 2 May 2018, https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2009/july/24.7.html.

⁶¹

Ibid.

⁶²

Here layperson distinguishes between the formally trained and ordained (clergy), and the on-the-job training as demonstrated by the first-century church as called out by Jesus.

⁶³

Morgan Lee, “When the Saints Go Marching Into Cuba and Myanmar,” Christianity Today (16 March 2015) npn, accessed 2 May 2018, https://www.christianitytoday.com/

ct/2009/july/24.7.html.

⁶⁴

Ibid.

⁶⁵

Ibid.

⁶⁶

Socialist Transition, 154.

⁶⁷

Ibid.

⁶⁸

Steve James, “About Us,”100 Fires.net: Cuba and World Spanish Outreach, npn, accessed 7 May 2018, http://www.100fires.net/home.html.

⁶⁹

Morgan Lee, “When the Saints Go Marching Into Cuba and Myanmar,” Christianity Today (16 March 2015) npn, accessed 2 May 2018, https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2009/july/24.7.html.

⁷⁰

Church Planting, 25.

⁷¹

When the Saints, npn.

⁷²

Alexandru-Corneliu Arion, “Some Contemporary Aspects of Hindu-Christian Dialogue,” Icoana Credintei. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Scientific Research, Vol. 2, No. 3 (2016): 69.

⁷³

Aurelio Alonso, “Religion in Cuba’s Socialist Transition,” Alonso, Aurelio. “Religion in Cuba’s Socialist Transition,” Socialism and Democracy, (March 2010) Vol. 24, Issue 1 (147-159). Accessed 7 May 2018, http://rx9vh3hy4r.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsummon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Religion+in+Cuba%27s+Socialist+Transition&rft.jtitle=Socialism+and+Democracy&rft.au=Alonso%2C+Aurelio&rft.date=2010-03-01&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.issn=0885-4300&rft.eissn=1745-2635&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.spage=147&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080%2F08854300903533010&rft.externalDocID=453765&paramdict=en-US.

⁷⁴

Ibid.

⁷⁵

Jardine Malado, “Cuba Bars Ministry from Distributing NIV Bibles,” Christian Today.com (4 April 2018) npn, accessed 1 May 2018, https://www.christiantoday.com/article/cuba-bars-ministry-from-distributing-niv-bibles/128033.htm.

⁷⁶

Saints, npn.

⁷⁷

Ibid.

⁷⁸

Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk, Operation World: 21st Century Edition (Waynesboro, GA: Paternoster USA, 2010), 215.

⁷⁹

Joshua, npn.

⁸⁰

Ronald Allen, Missionary Methods: St. Paul’s or Ours? (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1962), 12-17.

⁸¹

Larry Pate, Misionologia: Nuestra Cometido Transcultural (Deerfield, FL: Editorial Vida, 1987), 230-232.

⁸²

Porifiro Rodriguez, “Initial Thoughts on Entering the People Group: Types of Strategies to enter the People Group,” (25 April 2018), LUO GLST 500 D 04, npn, accessed 1 May 2018, https://learn.liberty.

edu/webapps/discussionboard/do/message?action=list_messages&course_id=_409039_1&nav=discussion_board_entry&conf_id=_768069_1&forum_id=_1688447_1&message_id=_31086641_1

⁸³

Steve James, “What We Do,” 100Fires.net:

⁸⁴

Methods, 81.

⁸⁵

William A. Smalley, “Cultural Implications of an Indigenous Church, Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader, 4th ed., Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 497-501.

⁸⁶

Christ Movements, 591.

⁸⁷

Paul Enns, The Moody Handbook of Theology, Revised and Expanded (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2008), 105-106).

⁸⁸

Joshua Project, npn.

⁸⁹

Joshua Project, npn.

⁹⁰

Ibid.

⁹¹

Roger Peterson, “Missio Dei, or ‘Missio Me’?” Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader, 4th ed., Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 752.

⁹²

Ibid., 754-755.

⁹³

C. Peter Wagner, “On the Cutting Edge of Mission Strategy,” Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader, 4th ed., Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 575.

⁹⁴

Cuba Population 2018, npn.

⁹⁵

Socialist Transition, 158.

An Exegetical Analysis of Ephesians 6:10-20

LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY

An Exegetical Analysis of Ephesians 6:10-20

Submitted to Dr. Leo Percer

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of

NBST610 B01

Summer 2018

Hermeneutics

Robert Beanblossom

3 July 2018

Contents

Introduction……………………………………………………….…………..……….1

Background ………………………………………………………………….………...3

Authorship………………………………………………………………………………3

Location and Date ……………………………………………………………………...7

Original Audience ……………………………………………………………………...7

Purpose ……………………………………………………………………………..…10

Ephesians 6:10-20……………………………….…………………………….…...…14

Hermeneutical Analysis ……………………………………………………………...14

Application ……………………………………………………………………………21

Historical Understanding ……………………………………………………………....22

Universal Principles ……………………………………………………………………24

Applications for Today ………………………………………………….……………..24

God is Sufficient for All of Our Needs ………………………………………25

God Expects Us to Engage in His Battle …………………………………….27

God provides the Tools, We Provide the Labor ……………………….……27

Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………..…28

Bibliography …………………………………………………….……………….....…..30

Introduction

The Epistle to the Ephesians presents the “sublimity of the church” as the body of Christ according to H. C. Thiessen.¹ “We pass into the stillness and hush of the sanctuary when we turn to Ephesians,” says William G. Moorhead.² The Christian life, according the epistle, is one of spiritual warfare against principalities, against powers, against rulers of darkness . . . , (and) against spiritual wickedness” (Eph 6:12).³ The sure solution to enable Christians to “be strong in the Lord, and in the power of his might,” (6:10) according to Paul, is to put on the “whole armor of God” (6:11a). In this paper we will examine the text of 6:10-20 in the context of the original messenger and recipients. We will do so within a conservative evangelical worldview that seeks to derive practical applications, or at least guidelines, for Christians in our world. In this, we join Paul T. Eckel as we “commit ourselves afresh to an examination” of the truths of the existence and power of evil in the world and its relevance to Christians today as put forth by the Apostle in this text.⁴

This will not be without challenges. Andrew T. Lincoln cites three: (1) current liberal scholarship holds that the epistle by Paul was actually written by an unnamed follower in his name, (2) some commentators see the placement within the larger passage as a concluding exhortation of the ethical second half of the letter, but are perplexed by the “sudden change in content, tone and style;” and, (3) the interpretation of the various pieces of armour are variously described as “objective soteriological benefits bestowed by God,” while others contend that they represent “subjective ethical qualities required of believers.”⁵ Finally, we will consider the division of Paul’s combatants into groups with “distinct martial characteristics:” believers capitalizing on God’s strength and close-in armament while the enemy relies on the “wiles of the devil,” political power and long-range weapons.

The biblical text, like the material world. . . is an autonomous reality (that) can be explained without reference to theology . . . (and) its interpretation need not be conceived as an act of participating in God’s action,” per John Milbank,⁶ but this is a futile as an act of worship and submission to the God of creation as it misses the intentional and infinite meaning of the Word (cf. Eph 4:18). God did not provide the Bible to primarily be the object of learned investigation and discussion by the world, but as His primary mode of communication with man bringing salvation for the unsaved and spiritual growth and fellowship for the saved. We strongly hold that His purpose, and our desire as we investigate Ephesians, is spiritual growth and intellectual development. The message of Ephesians is one of encouragement in the face of trials and challenges that will come. God, who expects his children to “be strong in the Lord . . . . as they “stand against the wiles of the devil,” makes His “whole armor” available that we “may be able to withstand in the evil day” (Eph 6: 10, 11, 13). It remains for us to take the whole armour upon ourselves that we may stand firmly in our service to Him.

Background

Ephesians is the tenth book in the Protestant NT canon. It follows the four gospels, Acts, and Paul’s letters to the Corinthians and Galatians. Ephesians is one of Paul’s four letters known as the Prison Epistles which are believed to be have been written during one of Paul’s imprisonments: three to churches and one a personal letter.⁷ Its genre “epistle,” or “letter,” is a style common in the ancient world and used in the Bible by Paul, John, Peter, James, and Jude. The general style of Paul’s letters includes a greeting, a prayer of thanksgiving, a section on doctrine addressing a problem within the church followed by a practical application for the recipient, and personal notes; this letter varies in not addressing a specific problem.

Authorship

Paul, who considered himself the spiritual father of the churches in the province of Asia,⁸ is the self-proclaimed author of this letter (1:1; 3:1) to the church at Ephesus. This introduction fits the Pauline pattern in his epistles.⁹ The letter includes many statements in the first person including his opening greeting and closing in which he claims to have personally sent his messenger Tychicus to them.¹⁰ The epistle acknowledges that Tychicus wrote the letter (6:24) as he did Colossians (Col 4:18);¹¹ scholarship considers him to be Paul’s amanuensis. As Paul’s companion and messenger during this period, he may have had input, original or editorial, into Paul’s composition. Speculation suggests that Paul’s “thorn in the flesh” (2 Cor 12:7) affected his writing in a way that affected his penmanship, making it distinctive, encouraging the use of an amanuensis.¹²

External and internal evidence as well as tradition support Pauline authorship. It is one of thirteen letters by this Apostle, with seven “undisputed,”¹³ and six “disputed” in which authorship is questioned.¹⁴ It was not until Erasmus in the fifteenth century that the authorship was disputed. The early church fathers used the epistle, accepting Pauline authorship. Marcion included it in his canon as early as ca. AD 140. It was included in the Muratorian Canon of 180.¹⁵ Clement of Rome uses language resembling 1:8 and 4:4-6 in his Epistle to the Corinthians. Ignatius uses language reminiscent of 3:3 and 4:9 in his Epistle to the Ephesians and uses 5:25 in his Epistle to Polycarp. Polycarp, himself, refers to 4:26 in his Epistle to the Philippians. Hermas the Shepherd uses 4:30 in his Commandment Tenth. Clement of Alexandria uses 4:21-25 in Stomata, calling it the Epistle to the Ephesians, and uses 4:13-18 in Instructions. All considered Paul to be the author.¹⁶ Chapter and verse references, of course, are given as modern references, not as original divisions of the Word. No other serious question of authorship occurred beyond Erasmus’ lone contention until the Enlightenment when secularist scholars attacked the Bible on many fronts.¹⁷

More importantly, since we hold the Bible to be the inerrant inspired Word of God, we cannot accept other authorship without contradicting this foundational premise: this would be a logical contradiction; inerrant and inspired have no degrees. Secular theologians disagree. Those who dispute the Pauline authorship of the various letters do so on deductive bases with no emperical evidence to contradict the internal claims. Klein, et al., summarize the arguments and counter-arguments:

The linguistic and theological difference among the Epistles have been over blown. Given the limited amount of material we have from any one Scriptural writing and given the different styles authors will adopt for different circumstances, we doubt that a modern reader could ever conclusively say that the person whose name appears in the opening verse could not have written a given Epistle . . . . But neither should we read such texts uncritically.¹⁸

The tenuous nature of claims against Pauline authorship is illustrated by Carson, et al., who state that the letter includes words not found elsewhere in Paul’s writing, but do not discuss specific cases.¹⁹ Ephesians does contain words not used elsewhere in the NT. P. N Harrison has found that Ephesians contains an average of 4.6 words per “page” that are unique to the NT or unique to this letter, which he finds consistent with the average in all the epistles.²⁰ Harrison’s research has been challenged, but not proven faulty. Russell Pregeant takes a somewhat broader approach, stating that, “Much like Colossians, Ephesians is characterized by lengthy, complex sentences and an unusual number of words not found in the undisputed letters.”²¹ We wonder why a style unanticipated by the reader two thousand years after the fact in a manuscript that has been in continuous use throughout the whole period renders the identity of the author suspect. Preageant presents a novel argument regarding the unusual words that is worthy of further research: “It is particularly striking that many of the unfamiliar words occur frequently in later writings of the New Testament and in Christian literature after the NT period.”²² Since no one has seriously proposed a date of authorship later than the mid-60s, Pregeant’s veiled suggestion that the epistle was written in the second century or that redactors have “swapped out” period words for others more comfortable for “modern” second-century audiences is interesting. It reminds one of the flurry of biblical translations that attempt to make the Bible understandable to modern man by using current speech patterns that become outdated before their copywrite is issued.

Still disputing Pauline authorship, Preageant changes direction and states that, considering the “literary relationship of Ephesians to Colossians there is so much overlap between the two that many scholars conclude that one was copied from the other or that both used a common source.”²³ Theissen agrees with the assessment of relatedness, stating that “nearly every sentence has echoes of what Paul has said elsewhere” in his letters, quoting Lewis, who found that of 155 verses in Ephesians, 78 are found in Colossians in varying degrees of conformity, but logically concludes that this is an indicator of Pauline authorship.²⁴ We find it interesting that one criterion for Pregeant’s conclusion is that to letters by the same author have common ground in literary characteristics and in sentence structure. One might ask if the commonality cited might be the result of the common author, and that the author might be Paul as stated in the letters and generally accepted by scholars and theologians for the first seventeen hundred years or so? Rather than commonality, William G. Moorhead who states that “The contrast between Galatians and Ephesians is as marked as can well be.²⁵ We will let the source speak for itself.

Location and Date

Paul identifies himself as a prisoner at the time of the letter but holds his “captor” to be Jesus Christ (3:1), the Lord (4:1), for whom he is an “ambassador in bonds” (6:20). This is assumed to reflect his actual status as a prisoner of Rome, either in Caesarea under house arrest (Acts 24:27) ca. AD 57-59, or during his final imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:30) ca. 60-62. Paul does not indicate any travelling companions in this letter, but he does say in that he is sending Tychicus, a travelling companion in Acts 20,²⁶ as his personal messenger to the Christians in Ephesus (6:21).

All of Paul’s prison epistles are believed to have been written during this period.²⁷ If these letters were written during the first imprisonment, the date would be within the AD 60-62 range which seems to be a reasonable conclusion. Theissen uses the same logic to arrive at a date of AD 60, while disputing Pauline authorship.²⁸

Original Audience

Tradition and the introduction both state that this letter is intended for the Christians in the church at Ephesus (1:1), a major Roman city and capital of the province of Asia, located a few miles inland from the Mediterranean Sea on the Cayster River. Some early manuscripts omit en Epheso (in Ephesus) suggesting that the letter might have been intended as a circular letter.²⁹ This argument is supported by the lack of personal notes in the text found in other Pauline epistles. This letter is also different as it brings encouragement to the church rather than addressing a specific problem, thus allowing for logical differences in presentation. Galatians 1:2 (“unto the churches of Galatia) in the majority of extant texts gives us Paul’s addressee. This is not to preclude his intention for the letter to be shared as a circular; he specifically instructed the Colossians to “forward” that letter to the Christians at Laodicea (Col 4:16).

Today the remains of the city, close to the modern city of Selcuk on the western edge of Turkey, lies about five miles inland from the Aegean coast at the modern port city of Kusadasi. Originally on the coast, the shifting shoreline “moved” the city inland but did not affect its commercial and political importance during NT times. Ephesus included a great theater with a seating capacity of 50 thousand, and the Temple of Diana (Roman) or Artemis (Greek) (Ac 19:23-41), a Wonder of the Ancient World.

Ephesus was a key city in the developing church. It was Paul’s great open door, standing with Jerusalem and Rome as centers of Christianity. Churches in the great Roman cities with their networks of transportation and communication facilitated travel that helped the rapid spread of the church under the leadership of the Holy Spirit. Paul, John, and Timothy all visited or spent time there.³⁰ Paul founded this church during a brief stay at the end of his second missionary journey (Acts 18:18-21) after planting churches in Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth. He opened this ministry by preaching in the synagogue, “reasoning with the Jews” but left for Caesarea even though he was asked to stay longer (cf. Ac 18:18-21). In his absence Aquila and Priscilla, friends from Corinth who remained in Ephesus, counselled Apollos, a “man instructed in the way of the Lord . . . (who) taught diligently the things of the Lord, knowing only the baptism of John” (Ac 18:25). Apollos was converted and became an effective teacher and evangelist in the area, rivaling Paul and Peter in local popularity.³¹ Paul did not see him as a rival, but a compatriot: “I have planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the increase” (1 Cor 3:6).

Returning during his third missionary journey, he stayed about three years (cf. Ac 19:1; 10:20-31), returning the synagogue to preach, but wore out his welcome after about three months; he was evicted and set up headquarters in the school of Tyrammis. Paul found about a dozen disciples of John in Ephesus who had not heard of the Holy Ghost since they believed. Being baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus, the “Holy Ghost came upon them” in what is known as the Gentile Pentecost (Acts 19:1-7). The gospel spread from Ephesus throughout Asia Minor (cf. Ac 19:23-20:1) in large part due to the work of the Ephesian church, the object of this letter.

The Spirit worked mightily through Paul in the city and the number of converts who turned from the idolatrous worship of Diana was significant enough that an unhappy contingent of silversmiths who made their living making idols and related items, and led by Demetrius, complained that Paul was destroying their businesses (cf. Acts 19:20-41). An interesting note on Paul’s experience in Ephesus is found in 1 Corinthians: “after the manner of men I have fought with beasts at Ephesus . . .” (1 Cor 5:32). Perhaps the “wild beasts” he fought are a metaphor for the “many adversaries” he found in the city amidst the “great door that is opened unto me” (1 Cor 16:8-9). Perhaps the silversmiths were his “wild beasts.” The Ephesians enjoyed entertainment in which wild animals were pitted against other animals or people.³² “Perils” from wild animals are not in Paul’s list of the woes he suffered, although “perils in the city” are (2 Cor 11:24-30). We simply do not know.

The “silversmith riots” drove Paul from the city (Acts 20:1). He later met a contingent of Ephesian church leaders at Miletus to encourage them and warn them against apostacy (Acts 20:16-38). Possibly an ongoing problem within the Ephesian church, this warning was repeated in Christ’s warning to the church in Revelation that could “not bear them which are evil,” but had “left their first love,” having “fallen” to the point that they needed to repent (Rev 2:1-7). He preached in the synagogue apparently without significant opposition at that time.

Purpose

Carson, et al., state that there is “no unanimity in understanding the letter’s aim,” but concede that “it is clearly (intended) to give instruction to readers, but not in a way familiar from other Pauline letters.”³³ The conflict in their position is clear as they distinguish aim from emphasis: “the letter’s emphasis on the church is unmistakable; Ephesians clearly tells us more about the church universal than do other writings of the Pauline corpus.”³⁴ Their analysis of purpose that “shows no unanimity” is so well said that we will let them continue: “In this letter we cannot miss the supreme place of God, who brings salvation despite the unworthiness of sinners. Nor can we overlook the greatness of Christ or the fact that that the Church, His body, occupies an important place in God’s working out of His great purposes.”³⁵ Their lament that there is “no in understanding the letter’s aim” represents post-Enlightenment thinking that evaluates Scripture based upon contemporary “enlightened” expectations rather than letting the Word drive the hermeneutic process. We will do the latter. The original readers would have “understood both the ethical actions and doctrinal fidelity as prime components of their missions.”³⁶

Two groups stand out: “the believers, who are empowered by God and the supernatural, and cosmic forces of evil” (6:10-20). A sequential triune structure for the believers begins with the “primary thrust of this pericope: be strong in the Lord (6:10),” followed by putting on the “whole armour of God (6:11),” and “Stand therefore (6:14).” The purpose is that believers “may be able to withstand” the supernatural enemy (3:10; 6:12).³⁷ Spiritual warfare³⁸ and the accompanying motifs of strength (3:14-17), armour (6:11, 13), and stand(ing) (6:11, 13, 14) illuminate doctrinal foundations that translate to the principles we will discuss below: Paul’s letter brings both doctrinal issues and practical applications to his audience.

The letter divides naturally into two sections, the first doctrinal (1-3), and the second practical and hortatory (4-6).³⁹ All of creation is reconciled to God the Creator by His will (1:3-6) through the blood of God the Son alone (1:7-12; 2:8-9) and sealed by the Holy Spirit (1:13-14); salvation is for all of mankind united into the whole of His Church that is directed to live holy lives that bring honor to God. ⁴⁰ “I therefore,” in 4:1 “signals the readers that ‘Paul’ is about to draw out the implications of what has gone before.”⁴¹

The message is clear: The Ephesians are to stand [histemi, staunchly hold a position, (2476)] (Eph 6:11, 13, 14) in the Gospel that Paul has brought them as they continue to develop in their individual and corporate relationship with Jesus Christ, growing in faith. This, that they may withstand [antihistemi, resist (436) “in the evil day” (6:13b). Ephesus, Sin City of Asia, offered a multitude of temptations to “stand” against, and the Roman Empire would soon not be safe for Christians. They belong to Him, having “obtained an inheritance, being predestinated according to the purpose of Him who worketh all things after the council of His own will” (1:11). He cannot be defeated, therefore they in Him cannot be defeated in a spiritual sense. Physical suffering and death are to come, but eternity belongs to God. The lines are drawn between God and Satan with the Christian to become the champion of the LORD.

Chapter Five, in the middle of the practical or hortatory section, begins with “Be ye therefore followers of God, as dear children (5:1) continuing with advice for the Christian lifestyle of love in obedience to Him and service to family and other Christians. Chapter Six continues with relational instructions that change abruptly into the warning that Christianity is a journey fraught with trials, temptations, and battles with Satan as the ruler of the enemy forces. He changes to a strong combat motif, using “combat metaphors to stand strong in the struggle against insidious powers (6:10-17). The tools He offers include truth, righteousness, the Gospel of peace, faith, salvation, prayer, and the Word of God (cf. 6:14-18). “They (his readers) will think back to the cosmic dimensions of Christ’s body and of their mission as a church.”⁴² This section, according to John F. Walvoord, et al., “discusses (a) believer’s resources to help him to stand against evil powers.”⁴³ Some have suggested that Paul’s detailed description of the armor is from his “up close and personal” experience with Roman soldiers, both as a combatant against Christians before his conversion, and as a long-term prisoner under the close-guard of those soldiers.⁴⁴

Ephesians 6:10-20

10 Finally, my brethren, be strong in the Lord, and in the power of his might. 11 Put on the whole armour of God, that ye may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil. 12 For we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness in high places. 13 Wherefore take unto you the whole armour of God, that ye may be able to withstand in the evil day, and having done all, to stand. 14 Stand therefore, having your loins girt about with truth, and having on the breastplate of righteousness; 15 and your feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of peace; 16 above all, taking the shield of faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench all the fiery darts of the wicked. 17 And take the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God: 18 praying always with all prayer and supplication in the Spirit, and watching thereunto with all perseverance and supplication for all saints; 19 and for me, that utterance may be given unto me, that I may open my mouth boldly, to make known the mystery of the gospel, 20 for which I am an ambassador in bonds: that therein I may speak boldly, as I ought to speak. (Eph 6:10-20).

Hermeneutical Analysis

10 “Finally [tou lipou, henceforth (3063)], my brethren, be strong [endunamoo, enabled and empowered (1743)] in the Lord, and in the power [kratei, power that overcomes resistance, as in Christ’s miracles⁴⁵ (2904)] of His might [ischus, ability and strength (2479)].” Paul introduces this final section with tou lipou rather than with the inferential particle as in 4:1, 17; 5:1, 17, 15 or the verb peripateo (to walk, as being with) as in 4:1, 17; 5:2, 8, 15. This is “henceforth, from this moment on,” strength in the person of Jesus Christ limited only by man’s faith rather than Jesus’ resources (cf. Matt 17:20; Lu 17:6).⁴⁶ Paul begins the conclusion having “made known . . . the mystery of His will . . . that in the fullness of times He might gather together in one all things in Christ, both which are in heaven, and which are on earth” (1:9-10). His message brings both an eternal component and immediate survival value: it is “thou shalt,” rather than “ya’ll think about this.” From this point forward, his fellow Christians are to live their lives endunamoo “enabled and empowered” in the Lord, with His kratei and His ischus the source of their strength: His undefeatable power and might against His enemies flowing through them. It is the “power of the inherent strength of 1:19,” according to Walvoord, et al.⁴⁷ Paul’s ministry, his example, was one of faith in action. He knew the stress that life in the real world could put on one’s relationship with his Savior.⁴⁸ He experienced personal shortcomings that the Lord refused to remove (2 Cor 12:7). Above it all, he personally knew the grace of God that is adequate for each of us “according to the gift of Christ” (Cor 4:7).

11 “Put on the whole armor [panoplian, all of it, the complete weapons system (3833)] of God, that ye may be able [dunamai, to have the power (1410)] to stand against the wiles of the devil [methodeia, trickery (3180); diabolos, Satan (1228)]. Human strength alone is never adequate to triumph over the methodeia diabolos, the unrelenting attack of deceit and trickery of the very Satan who tempted Jesus in the wilderness (cf. Matt 4; Luke 4), the one with whom we do battle. The “whole armor” of God is required and is emphasized by repetition in 6:13 because of the “strength and subtilty of our adversaries, and because of an ‘evil day’ of sore trial at hand.”⁴⁹ More than a dress uniform or a suit of armor in the closet is required. Safety requires panoplia Theos, the entire package of God’s armor (cf. hapla in 2 Cor 6:7: the entire weapons system) so that we may be able to withstand the attack. This armor is not decoration or a badge of office, but the weapons package necessary to “stand against the schemes or strategies (methodologies) of the enemy (cf. 4:27).⁵⁰ The ability to withstand requires action on the part of man; the Greek imperative panoplian assigns the responsibility for putting on God’s armour to man. Paul told the Corinthians, “But in all things approving ourselves as the ministers of God . . . by the word of truth, by the power of God, by the armour of righteousness on the right hand and on the left” 2 Cor 6:4).

12 “For we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities [arche, power with the connotation of having existed from the beginning (746)], against powers [exousia, superhuman authority (1849)], against the rulers of the darkness of this world [kosmokrator, Satan (2888); skotos, shadiness (4655); aion, of the age (165)] against spiritual wickedness [pneumatikos, supernatural (4152); poneria, depravity (4189)] in high places [epouranios, celestial or heavenly (2032)].” Paul presents a hierarchy of evil forces that the Christian is being armed against: potent spiritual forces rather than the flesh and blood of the most powerful men.⁵¹ The enemy, powerful and deceitful, is beyond human comprehension. The leader of this supernatural force is Satan himself.⁵² He is beyond human power to defeat. Christians are under attack by the supernatural forces of Satan, the ruler of the dark and shady places of this world into which unwary men are lured at the expense of their very souls: “this is the condemnation, that light has come into the world, and men loved darkness rather than light, because their deeds were evil” (John 3:19). Jeremiah recognized the power of God and the resources of His armory: “The Lord hath opened His armory, and hath brought forth the weapons of His indignation” (Jer 50:25). “With such a foe confronting him, the Christian needs God’s whole armor.”⁵³

13 “Wherefore take unto you the whole armour of God, that ye may be able to withstand [anthistemi (436), to resist and oppose (4366)] in the evil day [poneros, an essential character of degeneracy (4190)]; hemera (2250), the age], and having done all [katergazomai, to finish (2716); hapas, all things (537)], to stand [histemi, to be staunchly established (2476)].” Taking the whole package of armor that God offers, Christians are then unequivocally able to both resist and oppose the forces of Satan in the evil environment of this world.

14 “Stand [histemi] therefore, having your loins girt about with truth, and having on the breastplate [thorax (2382)] of righteousness [dikaiosune, Christian justification (1343)].” The Greek imperative histemi is completed in perizonnumi [having (4024) “your loins girt;” and the breastplate in place. The Christian stands not in his own strength, but in the justification “of God” that is “in Christ Jesus” who alone provides the “remission of sins” (cf. Rom 3:21). We are reminded again that this protection is spiritual not corporeal as is the battle. His armor begins with the belt of truth that surrounds each soldier and continues with the thorax of justification that provides protection from frontal assault as the soldier, obeying orders, anthistemi, stands fast in the battle, engaging the enemy confronting him.

15 “and your feet shod with the preparation [hetoimasia (2091)] of the gospel of peace.” This, again, is past tense, a completed act continued from v. 14. This is the only place hetoimasia is used in the NT. Ritualistic preparation, paraskeue [3094], is used six times, but Paul chose a more aggressive word related to kataskeuazo [2680] that suggests preparation using external equipment (the belt, breastplate, shoes, shield) as he illustrates the spiritual preparation needed to withstand and overcome the adversary.

16” above all [epi, taking charge of (1909); pas, the whole (3956)], taking the shield of faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench [sbennumi, extinguish (4570)] all the fiery darts [puroo, to be inflamed with anger (4448); belos, a missile (956)] of the wicked [poneros, vicious evil (4190)].” Epi pas—taking charge of the whole through the exercise of faith that is the gift of God that will bring those justified by faith through Christ Jesus the promised rewards by joining Jesus, sitting “together in heavenly places” (cf. Eph 2:4-9). Faith enables the rest of the weapons package. Although intended for hand-to-hand combat, this system is designed to even withstand the long-range belos, the flaming arrows of Satan, his most insidious warheads. The faith that Paul admonishes the Ephesians to have epi pas is often elusive as Christians still walk with feet of clay. Intent is inadequate. Paul admitted that “the good that I would I do not: but the evil which I would not, that I do” (Rom 7:19). But Jesus, the “author and finisher of our faith” (Heb 12:2a), taught that a little faith can be effective, repeating it at least twice (cf. Matt 17:20; Luke 17:6). He has given Christians the path that must be followed: “Faith cometh by hearing, and hearing by the word of God” (Rom 10:17).

17 “And take [dechomi, a Greek imperative: a call to action (1209)]⁵⁴ the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit, which is the Word of God.” Isaiah wrote of a time when truth would fail and judgement would be false, but cried that the “LORD saw it, and it displeased Him . . . therefore He brought salvation unto him (man) . . . For he put on righteousness as a breastplate, and an helmet of salvation upon his head; and he put on garments of vengeance for clothing” (cf. Is 59:12-17). Salvation is a prerequisite to unlock the Word of God which is the sword of the Spirit, the Holy Ghost. The writer of Hebrews expands this thought: “For the Word of God is quick, and powerful, and sharper than any twoedged sword” that divides soul and spirit, but which will lead to rest in God for those who labor and believe on Him (cf. Heb 4:1-12). The helmet and sword are the last pieces of armor to be taken up by the soldier for combat. The sword is the last means of defense in close quarter combat. For the soldier of the cross it is the “hope of salvation” (1 Thess 5:8b), but a hope that is faith in action; accepting John’s assessment, it is not simply an assigned weapon to be cleaned and polished for inspections, but used daily to invoke protection through the One who upholds “all things by word of His power” (Heb 1:3b), the infinite ultimate power: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God (John 1:1-2). The helmet of salvation is granted by this all-powerful God (Heb 1:3c) as is the soldier’s faith.

18 “praying always with all prayer [proseuche, an earnest prayer (4335)] and supplication [deesis, petition (1162)] in the Spirit, and watching thereunto with all perseverance and supplication for all saints.” The Ephesians are reminded again that the battle is not theirs, but God’s; the armor is not of their making, but a gift of God; the strength to overcome is not theirs, but His. Matthew wrote, “Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation: the spirit is indeed willing, but the flesh is weak” (Matt 26:41). Zeal is prone to quickly fade in the heat of battle where the goal quickly becomes the preservation of self and buddies rather than the execution of orders for the larger cause. The temptation is to survive rather than to follow orders and take the risks necessary to overcome. The very act of living distracts us from the battle plan, making us susceptible to defeat; but holding our duty station, our portion in life, and praying always will assure that we escape the enemy and are able to “stand before the Son of man (cf. Lu 21:34-36). Paul, a veteran of many campaigns, exhorted Christians to “Pray without ceasing” (1 Thess 5:17) as he does for them (Rom 1:9; 2 Tim 1:3). Luke records the results of dedicated continual prayer: when Peter was held in prison, “prayer was made without ceasing of the church unto God for him;” God sent an angel who released him. (cf. Ac 12:4-7).

19 “and for me, that utterance [logos, speaking the Word (3056)] may be given unto me, that I may open my mouth boldly, to make known the mystery of the gospel, 20 for which I am an ambassador in bonds: that therein I may speak boldly, as I ought to speak.” Paul selected logos, the same word used in John 1:1-2, for the message he preached: the very Word of God representing God the Word. Paul admonished the Ephesians to be as single minded in their service as he was in his. In closing this section, he asks the Ephesians to exercise the weapon of prayer on behalf of him and his ministry (6:19-20). ⁵⁵ As Jesus did with the disciples, he presented this as an example for his own followers that they might be strengthened in their faith, take upon themselves the full armour of God, and set themselves apart for His service: Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ . . . separated unto the gospel of God” Rom 1:1).

The armor Paul described was not for long distance fighting. The Ephesians were to stand fast even when the enemy attacked with long-range weapons. The Roman sword and body armor were intended for fierce close-quarters battle. It provided little protection from arrows, especially the flaming variety knows as fiery darts that penetrated armor and brought about painful and often lethal wounds unless the soldier was observant and adept at the use of his shield, the only tool that would withstand those projectiles. The shield of the Roman legions was made of iron-studded wood covered with linen and leather, about 2 ½ feet wide and 4 feet tall.⁵⁶ In God’s armament the shield represents the faith exercised by the believer, the soldier, as granted by the Holy Spirit as that believer engages God through His Word (Rom 10:17) for “without faith it is impossible to please Him: for he that cometh to God must believe that He is, and that He is a rewarder of them that diligently seek Him (Heb 11:6). Nothing less will provide the essential protection of His shield. He opened the book with “grace be to you, and peace” (1:2) and closed in the same vein: “Peace be to the brethren” (6:23). In the body of his letter he praised their “faith in the Lord Jesus, and love unto all the saints” in their salvation through the grace of God alone (cf.1:15, 2:1-9). He spoke of the “exceeding greatness” of the power of God for those who believe on Him that is “far above all principality, and power, and might, and dominion” (1:19, 21). He told them that they needed to go forward with “boldness and access with confidence” by faith but warned of tribulations to come (3:12-13). Paul called them to relationships among themselves in “lowliness and meekness, with longsuffering, forebearing one another in love; endeavoring to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace” in the unity exemplified by the “One God and Father of all” through His grace (cf. 4:2-3, 6, 7). He spoke of relationships within society, the human family, and the workplace (4:20-5:18, 21-6:9), achievable by constant prayer and meditation on things of God (5:20).

Paul closes with an expansion of the warning of tribulations to come (3:12-13) with the section on putting on the “whole armour of God” available through faith to the saved by the

exercise of prayer and supplication and the leadership and power of the Holy Spirit (6:18-20).

Application

I readily admit that I am not by nature or practice oriented to defining specific behaviors in terms of biblical principles. I paint principles in broad strokes expecting folks to make suitable applications in their own lives as thy seek the leadership of the Holy Spirit. Matthew 6 lends some guidance in this area. I join Richard S. Briggs in a “spirit of reflexive self-awareness” that as “one who engages with scripture in what I hope to be a practical and indeed theological manner,” I am not, “by training nor particularly by temperament, a practical theologian.”⁵⁷ Underlying this is my proclivity to grasp at “teaching moments” when and where they arise. Paraphrasing an adage, it is better to teach the Christian to interpret and understand their own Bible through prayerful reading and intentional submission to the Holy Spirit than it is to simply give them one more Sunday School lesson that resembles the many they have heard since they were children. While the theologian might balk at this, holding (explicitly or implicitly) that the “typical” lay Christian is not capable of (or perhaps not interested in) understanding and applying the finer nuances of biblical teachings, I would remind that this is one of the primary mindsets that brought on the Reformation. So, we begin.

Historical Understanding

In the First Century the Roman army was the major fighting force in the western world: it was at the height of its power.⁵⁸ “The overwhelming military power of Rome was the most important political reality in Judea at the time of Christ.”⁵⁹ The breastplate mentioned by Paul would probably have been a “lorica segmentata, a segmented plate armor covering the shoulders and torso” with this protection “supplemented by a large, curved, rectangular, leather-covered wooden shield (scutum), reinforced by iron bosses,” both part of an impressive and effective set of armament.⁶⁰ The infantryman was equipped as a close-quarter combatant with a his gladius,⁶¹ the popular “double-edged short sword.”⁶² Paul would have been familiar all of this from first-hand experience and would have considered each piece as he wrote 6:10-20.

As discussed above, scholars are divided on the purpose of this passage. Some see it as “no more than the concluding exhortation of the ethical second half of the letter.”⁶³ Life, however, is more than ethics. It has a cosmic element that Paul spoke of to the Ephesians: in the “fulness of times He might gather together in one all things in Christ, both which are in heaven, and which are on earth” (1:10). Life is multi-dimensional, earthly and heavenly, secular and spiritual, finite and infinite. Motive is never as simple as TV crime shows would have us believe. Extreme simplification is a danger of over-specialization, or at least over-emphasizing particular methodology. Paul’s emphasis of this multi-dimensional nature of man in the opening of the epistle suggests its importance.⁶⁴ Returning for a moment to our purpose, we call on Briggs for focus: “The truth about method in biblical interpretation is that any method (whether historical-critical or primarily theological) opens up certain angles on the text and fails to access others. . . . The hermeneutical moral . . . is that if you want truth you must sit light on method, and if you specify method you will end up sitting light on truth”⁶⁵ We believe this to be true, but in degree than rather than as an absolute. We are nearing the base of a pyramid in which a narrow exegetical interpretation of ancient reality that sits at the top will be expanded into the broader base of application where much “agreement to disagree” will appear. Application amplifies the differences found in interpretation as knowledge and experience depart the solidity of the

text and becomes informed opinion.⁶⁶

Universal Principles

God, who expects his children to “be strong in the Lord . . . . as they “stand against the wiles of the devil,” makes His “whole armor” available that we “may be able to withstand in the evil day” (Eph 6: 10, 11, 13). We present three universal principles derived from the text and will discuss applications for them. Each contains foundational truth and builds upon one another to allow the submissive Christian to grow in his personal relationship with God and service to Him.

God is sufficient for all of our needs. We need no other source of sufficiency.
God expects us to engage in His battle. Christianity is not spectator sport.
He provides the tools, we provide the labor. His tools are adequate, our duty is part of our praise and worship of our LORD and Savior.

Applications for Today

We have spent considerable effort to understand the message Paul intended to convey to the Ephesian Christians in 6:10-20 and how we think his original audience understood it. This has been imperfect and is incomplete due to our finite ability and the restrictions of time and purpose. We have briefly excerpted some enduring principles from that passage that link the first century with the twenty-first. We will use those principles to develop some specific applications for today’s Christian, doing so with extreme caution and even trepidation. Peter tells us that in Scripture we have a “sure word of prophecy [prophetikos, foretelling, (4397)]; whereunto ye do well that ye take heed, as unto a light that shineth in a dark place,” but warns that “no prophecy [prophetikos, (4397)] of the Scripture is of any private interpretation” (2 Pet 1:19a, 20). We move into this section with Timothy, striving “not about words to no profit,” but as workmen that “needeth not to be ashamed, rightly dividing [orthotomeo, correctly interpreting (3718)] the Word of truth” (2 Tim 2:14-15). Indifference and pseudo-scientific solutions are beyond us. We enter this with determination and a high consideration of Scripture as God’s practical communication with man. Even with the trepidation, as soldiers of the cross we join Paul as he concludes this passage, seeking to “speak boldly, as I ought to speak” (6:20b).

God is Sufficient for All of Our Needs

The Christian experience is fueled by faith, but at its best, our faith is imperfect and lacking. The Christian experience does not remove the individual from the realities of this world: spiritual rebirth does not elevate the physical above the toils, struggles, and ultimate death that is the plight of every human in this sin-cursed world. The lifestyle required by God is beyond the ability of any man to achieve on his own. Paul told us that “the good that I would I do not: but the evil which I would not, that I do” (Rom 7:19). Fortunately, the power lies not in our own strength, but in the supernatural power of the Creator of the universe: “Jesus came and spake unto them, saying, All power is given unto me in heaven and in earth” (Matt 28:18). Paul told the Ephesians, “what is the exceeding greatness of His power to usward who believe, according to the working of His mighty power, which He wrought in Christ, when He raised Him from the dead . . . far above all principality, and power, and might, and dominion, and every name that is named, not only in this world, but also in that which is to come” (Eph 1:10); power that is available for every believer who accepted it: “that He would grant you, according to the riches of His glory, to be strengthened with might by His Spirit in the inner man” (3:16).⁶⁷ All of this power is apprehended through faith (cf. 1:1, 15; 2:8) by those who have accepted the “helmet” of His salvation (6:17), but included throughout the epistle (1:13; 2:5, 8; and 5:23), resulting in a soldier “sealed” by the Spirit (1:13; 4:30).⁶⁸

Engaging the sufficiency of God in our lives is a process rather than an event: is an ongoing effort that Paul described as a race (Heb 12:1), a race begins with conversion and ends with death: it is a cross-country race. We are challenged today to maintain our strength as we struggle through the ups and downs of the course. We believe in theory that God is sufficient for all our needs, but sometimes don’t know how to access His resources. Instead of divesting ourselves of the “every weight” as Paul recommended (Heb 12:1b), we increasingly encumber ourselves with activities that overfill available time, causing stress and frustration. Many of these are good in themselves, and contribute to our success and happiness, if only in the sight of the world. In this process, we dutifully assign a small segment of our early morning as time with God, commonly known today as “devotions.” Into this 15 minutes we “say” a quick prayer, read our daily quota of Bible verses (or, more likely, what someone else has written about the verses in a programmed devotional booklet), and quickly move on to the “real” world, our God-need satisfied, the 24-7 nature of our relationship with our Savior ignored.

The solution requires an intentional turning away from the values of the world and the sanctification, or setting aside, of ourselves for His service rather than our own. This requires a degree of uncomfortable separation from the values and opinions of the world. We will appear different. In some cultures, it will result in real persecution. Peter set the bar high, advising that this type of suffering brings happiness: “But and if ye suffer for righteousness’ sake, happy are ye: and be not afraid of terror, neither be troubled, but sanctify the Lord God in your hearts” (1 Pet 3:14:15a). This is a big order that defies human logic: suffering brings happiness. The Apostles demonstrated this in their lives and related it in their writings. Faith in action produces inner peace that is beyond the world’s comprehension but is the result of God’s grace: the “peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall keep your hearts and minds through Christ Jesus.

The acts that achieve this solution are simple but are as incomprehensible to the world as faith is. We will look to Matthew for the answer: “Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth . . . but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven . . . for where your treasure is, there will your heart be also” (Matt 6:19-21). Our treasure must be things of God, things spiritual. Family, work, education, even rest and relaxation, are all acceptable in the sight of God. But instead of keeping these activities primary, and the development of our relationship with our Savior secondary, the priorities need to be reversed.

It is popular for people of all ages today to regularly spend time “at the gym” to get the exercise to keep their bodies healthy that we used to get from hard labor: many jobs are sedentary and provide little “exercise.” Many freely discuss this lifestyle with others comparing notes on what works and how to do better. Exercise and the decision to share that lifestyle with others is a conscious decision and requires effort and follow-through to be effective, for our bodies to improve. Paul would have recognized this and perhaps used it as an analogy today to encourage us to use the same determination and action to “get into” those exercises that would improve our spiritual condition: prayer, Bible reading and study, fellowship with other Christians, and sharing that experience with others.

Paul says (and demonstrates) that as our worldview demonstrates His priorities our own lives will reflect the sufficiency of God in our personal, individual lives: Rejoice evermore. Pray without ceasing. In everything give thanks: for this is the will of God in Jesus Christ concerning you. He is sufficient to each of us in the measure of our faith in action.

God Expects Us to Engage in His Battle

The Christian life is not a spectator sport. Spending more time with our Lord through Bible study and prayer and through rearranging our priorities and activities is the preparation and empowering part of this lifestyle, but not all of it. It is not a passive lifestyle but a call to action; not of personal goals but fulfilling God’s plan. It is not comprehensible to the “natural” man. The mandates are manifold: “Go ye therefore, and teach all nations” (Matt 28:19); “Go ye into all the

world, and preach” (Mark 16:15); “as my Father hath sent me, even so send I you (John 20:21). This translates into the inclusion in our worldview of overt witnessing or personal evangelism as the Sprit leads; of accepting any specific direction of service such as scholarly pursuits, teaching, preaching, or missionary work; and of a family, work, and community lifestyle that reflects our growing relationship with our Savior. The Christian lifestyle is an integrated whole of learning and growing even as we are sharing: witnessing, comforting, counselling others. We must seek the leadership of the Holy Spirit through prayer to provide opportunities and the strength for our follow-through in witnessing of our victory in Jesus to others even as we fight our own spiritual

battles.

God Provides the Armour, We Provide the Labor

While it is a mandate for the Christian to serve, to “go and tell” even as we stand fast in the battle, His army is all volunteer: “I heard the voice of the Lord, saying, Whom shall I send, and who will go for us? Then said I, Here am I; send me” (Is 6:8). His tools are essential and adequate. As Paul described the whole armor of God, Luke said, “ye shall receive power, after that the Holy Ghost has come upon you: and ye shall be witnesses unto me” (Ac 1:8a). Each piece of armour that Paul described is an essential part of the whole. Like salvation, God makes each piece available in the measure He desires for each of us, but it is useless until we accept the offer and put it into service. We must prepare to use the armour, but that is not a full-time job. We are on a learn-as-you-go program that begins with salvation and ends with death.⁶⁹

The Christian soldier is God’s “point of contact” with the unsaved, the human element in the divine plan of salvation. This point of contact establishes a path for communication that brings an understanding of God’s plan of salvation into the context of the life of an unsaved individual. It is a cultural bridge that attempts to understand the other’s culture and lifestyle to facilitate communication but does not compromise the Word.⁷⁰ This is the meeting place of the God-given tools of the trade of the Christian witness and the application by God’s volunteer. It is up close and personal. It subjects the soldier to ridicule and perhaps to persecution. But these are the temporal effects that will soon pass. It also allows the Christian soldier to experience the unequalled joy of helping a lost soul to find Jesus Christ as her personal savior.

Conclusion

Paul’s letter to the Ephesian Christians is not an interesting historical document meant to occupy scholars and their students in their ivory towers but is a significant part of the living Word of God that includes instruction and application for Christians today encountering real-world challenges. The passage considered, 6:10-20, is “not simply the conclusion to the paraenesis but also the conclusion to the letter as a whole . . . (as) it aids our appreciation of the appropriateness of the central command, “Stand, therefore . . .”⁷¹ It is one facet of Paul’s Letter to the Ephesians, one part of the NT, and one part of the Bible: it must be taken in those contexts. But within those contexts it stands firmly as a vital message to Christians: God is sufficient, He leads into the battles of this world, and He provides the armour as we provide the labor. We, the Christian as an individual and the Church as the Bride of the Lamb, stand empowered and undefeatable in His power, holding fast as we await the coming Day. Nowhere is this soldier of Christ, armed and empowered by Him directed to take offensive action against persons, governments, or other perceived enemies.⁷² The battle is God’s and is against Satan and his forces. We stand not arrayed in our own glory as victorious soldiers of the cross, but in battle dress on continuous alert in a defensive mode awaiting His coming in His glory and honor.⁷³

Bibliography

Asher, Jeffrey R. 2011. “An Unworthy Foe: Heroic,’ Trickery, and an Insult in Ephesians 6:11.” Journal of Biblical Literature 130, no. 4: 729-748. Academic OneFile. Accessed 31 May 2018, file:///C:/Users/Owner/Desktop/An_unworthy_foe_heroic_Ethetae%20(1).PDF.

Briggs, Richard S. "Biblical Hermeneutics and Practical Theology: Method and Truth in Context." Anglican Theological Review 97, no. 2 (Spring, 2015): 201-17. Accessed 14 May 2018, http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/1680224450?accountid=12085.

Carson, D. A., Douglas J. Moo, and Leon Morris. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992.

Eckel, Paul T. 1991. “Ephesians 6:10-20” Interpretation 45, no. 3: 288-93. ATLASerials, Religion Collection: EBSCOhost. Accessed 31 May 2018, http://rx9vh3hy4r.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsummon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ephesians+6%3A10-20&rft.jtitle=Interpretation&rft.au=Eckel%2C+Paul+T&rft.date=1991-07-01&rft.pub=Union+Theological+Seminary&rft.issn=0020-9643&rft.eissn=2159-340X&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.spage=288&rft.externalDBID=BSHEE&rft.externalDocID=11065318&paramdict=en-US.

Guthrie, Donald. New Testament Introduction. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1990.

Hamblin, William J. "The Roman Army in the First Century." Brigham Young University Studies 36, no. 3 (1996): 337-49. Accessed 7 June 2018, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43044137.

Harrison, Percy Neale. The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles. London: Oxford University Press, 1921.

Klein, William W., Crain L Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Revised and Updated. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004.

Lincoln, Andrew. 1995. “’Stand Therefore. . . .’ Ephesians 6:10-20 as Peroratio,” Biblical Interpretation 3, no. 1: 99-114.

McRaney, William Jr. The Art of Personal Evangelism. Nashville: B and H Academic, 2003.

Moorehead, William Gallogly. Outline Studies in Acts, Romans, First and Second Corinthians, Galatians and Ephesians. Grand Rapids: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1902.

Preageant, Russell. Engaging the New Testament: An Interdisciplinary Introduction. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995.

Reyburn, William D. “Identification in the Missionary Task,” Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader, 4th ed. Winter, Ralph and Steven C. Hawthorne, ed. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009.

Roberts, Mark D. “How our Knowledge of the Ancient City of Ephesus Enriches our Knowledge of the NT.” 2011. Patheos.com. Accessed 4 June 2018, http://www.patheos.com/community/markdroberts/.

Sargent, John Milbank. “Biblical Hermeneutics: The End of the Historical Critical Method?” Heythrop Journal 53, Issue 2 (March 2012).

Schlier, H. Der Brief and die Epheser. Dusseldorf: Patmos Verlag, 1957.

Thiessen, H. C. Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1943.

Walvoord, John F., and Roy B. Zuck, ed. The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament. Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983.

Wesley, John. Parallel Commentary on the New Testament. Ed. Mark Water. Chattanooga: AMG Publishers, 2003.

T. H. Thiessen, Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1943), 239.

William Gallogly Moorehead, Outline Studies in Acts, Romans, First and Second Corinthians, Galatians and Ephesians (Grand Rapids: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1902), 214.

All Scripture is from the King James Version of the Bible unless otherwise noted.

⁴

Paul T. Eckel, “Ephesians 6:10-20,” Interpretation 45, no. 3: 288-93, ATLASerials, Religion Collection: EBSCOhost, accessed 31 May 2018, http://rx9vh3hy4r.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsummon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ephesians+6%3A10-20&rft.jtitle=Interpretation&rft.au=Eckel%2C+Paul+T&rft.date=1991-07-01&rft.pub=Union+Theological+Seminary&rft.issn=0020-9643&rft.eissn=2159-340X&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.spage=288&rft.externalDBID=BSHEE&rft.externalDocID=11065318&paramdict=en-US.

⁵

Andrew Lincoln, “’Stand Therefore. . . .’ Ephesians 6:10-20 as Peroratio,” Biblical Interpretation 3, no. 1: 99-114.

⁶

Benjamin Sargent, John Milbank, “Biblical Hermeneutics: The End of the Historical-Critical Method?” Heythrop Journal 53, issue 2 (March 2012): 255.

⁷

Cf. Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.

⁸

Thiessen, 244. Cf. Ac 19:10; Col 2:1.

⁹

Cf. Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1; Titus 1:1; and Phlm 1:1.

¹⁰

Cf. 1:16; 3:1, 3ff., 7, 14ff., 17ff.; 5:32; 6:1, 19-22.

¹¹

Cf. Eph 6:24 and Col 4:18.

¹²

Cf. 1 Cor 16:21; 2 Thess 3:17; and Philm 1:19.

¹³

These, with their accepted dates of authorship, include 1 Thessalonians (AD 50), Galatians (53), 1 Corinthians (53-54), Philemon (55), Philippians (55), 2 Corinthians (55-56), and Romans (57).

¹⁴

The disputed letters include Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, Ephesians, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus.

¹⁵

Marcion called the epistle “Laodiceans.”

¹⁶

Thiessen, 239.

¹⁷

Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1990), 479.

¹⁸

William W. Klein, Crain L Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr., Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Revised and Updated (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004), 429.

¹⁹

D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, and Leon Morris, An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 307.

²⁰

Percy Neal Harrison, The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles (London: Oxford University Press, 1921), 20.

²¹

Russell Pregeant, Engaging the New Testament: An Interdisciplinary Introduction (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995), 422.

²²

Ibid.

²³

Ibid.

²⁴

Thiessen, 240.

²⁵

Moorehead, 212.

²⁶

In support of this theory, this is the period in which Paul met with the Ephesian elders in Miletus (20:17).

²⁷

These include Ephesians (since Tychicus delivered both Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon); Philippians (1:7); Colossians, (4:10), and Philemon (9).

²⁸

Thiessen, 245.

²⁹

Mark D. Roberts, “How our Knowledge of the Ancient City of Ephesus Enriches our Knowledge of the NT,” 2011, patheos.com, npn, accessed 4 June 2018, http://www.patheos.com/community/markdroberts/. Roberts cites Papyrus 46, “one of the oldest and most reliable manuscripts of Paul’s letters,” as his prime evidence but fails to note that only six of all the known manuscripts of Ephesians omits en Epheso, hardly a mark of reliability despite an early age.

³⁰

Roberts, npn.

³¹

Cf. 1 Cor 1:12; 3:4-5, 22; 4:6.

³²

Roberts, npn.

³³

Carson, 311. Emphasis mine.

³⁴

Ibid., 313.

³⁵

Ibid., 315-316.

³⁶

Pregeant, 426.

³⁷

Jeffrey R. Asher, “An Unworthy Foe: Heroic,’ Trickery, and an Insult in Ephesians 6:11,” Journal of Biblical Literature 130, no. 4: 732, Academic OneFile. Accessed 31 May 2018, file:///C:/Users/Owner/Desktop/An_unworthy_foe_heroic_Ethetae%20(1).PDF.

³⁸

Also addressed by Paul in 2 Cor 10:1-6.

³⁹

Moorehead, 219.

⁴⁰

Paul herein describes this unity as body (3:6; 4:4; 5:30), building fitly framed (1:21), children (1:5; 5:1), church (5:23, 25, 27), fellowship of the mystery (3:9), habitation (1:22), household of God (1:19), new man (4:24), soldier (cf. 6:20-20), temple (1:24).

⁴¹

Pregeant, 425. The emphasis on ‘Paul” is Pregeant’s, who, as discussed above, does not accept Pauline authorship.

⁴²

Pregeant, 426.

⁴³

John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck, gen. ed., The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 1983), 642.

⁴⁴

Ibid., 643.

⁴⁵

Ibid., 642.

⁴⁶

Ibid.

⁴⁷

Ibid.

⁴⁸

Moorehead, 240.

⁴⁹

John Wesley, Parallel Commentary on the New Testament, ed. Mark Water (Chattanooga: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1996), 666.

⁵⁰

Walvoord., 643.

⁵¹

Moorehead.

⁵²

Ibid, 241. Cf. 2:2; 4:27.

⁵³

Ibid., 243.

⁵⁴

Walvoord, 644.

⁵⁵

Carson, 305.

⁵⁶

Walvoord, 644.

⁵⁷

Richard S. Briggs, “Biblical Hermeneutics and Practical Theology: Method and Truth in Context,” Anglican Theological Review 97, no. 2 (Spring, 2015): 202, accessed 14 May 2018, http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/1680224450?accountid=12085.

⁵⁸

William J. Hamblin, "The Roman Army in the First Century" Brigham Young University Studies 36, no. 3 (1996): 337, accessed 7 June 2018, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43044137.

⁵⁹

Ibid., 337.

⁶⁰

Ibid., 339.

⁶¹

Ibid. The author notes that the English word sword (often translated from the Latin gladius when referring to the sword of the Roman legionnaire) is translated from two Greek words: macharia (a large knife or short sword) and romphaia (a large, broad sword). Peter used a macharia to cut off the ear of the high priest’s ear (John 18:10). The same word is used by Paul in 10:17.

⁶²

Ibid.

⁶³

Cf. H. Schlier, Der Brief an die Epheser (Dusseldorf: Patmos Verlag, 1957), 16; C. L. Milton, Ephesians (London: Oliphants, 1976), 35, 219.

⁶⁴

Lincoln, 102.

⁶⁵

Briggs, 210, 211.

⁶⁶

Ibid., 215.

⁶⁷

Lincoln. 103.

⁶⁸

Ibid., 106, 107.

⁶⁹

William McRaney, Jr., The Art of Personal Evangelism (Nashville: B and H Academic, 2003), 44, 46.

⁷⁰

William D. Reyburn, “Identification in the Missionary Task,” Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader, 4th ed. Winter, Ralph and Steven C. Hawthorne, ed. (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2009), 471-72.

⁷¹

Lincoln, 113, 114.

⁷²

Walvoord, 643.

⁷³

Ibid.

The Theological Significance of the Doctrine of Creation: The Theological Bedrock of Early Creation in Genesis 1:1-2

LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
The Theological Significance of the Doctrine of Creation: The Theological Bedrock of Early Creation in Genesis 1:1-2
Submitted to Matthew Wireman
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of
THEO 525 – D02
Survey of Theology
by
Robert Beanblossom
25 August 2017
2
Contents
Introduction..…………………….…………………..……………………………………….…..1
Scope …………………………………………………………………………………………….……2
Introductory Matters …………………………………………………………….…………..3
Authorship ……………………………………………………………………………….………….3
Date and Place of Writing ………………………………………………………….……….3
Destination and Occasion ……………………………………………..………….………..4
Purpose ………………………………………………………………………………………………..4
Creation: Genesis 1:1-2……………….……………………………………….……..…..….4
Exegetical Considerations .…………………………………………….………..…………5
Genesis 1:1-2 and Science ..………………………………………………………..………9
The Scientific Method ………………………………………………………………….………9
Cosmology …………………………………………………………………………………….……10
Physics ………………………………………………………………………………………………..11
Geology ………………………………………………………………………………………………12
Theological Considerations …………………………………….………………………..14
Summary and Conclusions ……………………………………………….……………….15
Bibliography …..……………………………………….…………………………..……………16

Publication Note: This paper was originally published on 25 August 2017 as partial fulfillment of the requirements of THEO 525 at Liberty University Rawlings School of Divinity.

Citation: Beanblossom, Robert. 2017. “The Theological Significance of the Doctrine of Creation: The Theological Bedrock of Early Creation in Genesis 1:1-2.” https://learn.liberty.edu/webapps/
assignment/uploadAssignment?content_id=_18078564_1&course_id=_370689_1&assign_group_id=&mode=view.

Introduction

Creation: is it fact or fiction? Is Genesis 1-21 the God-breathed account of actual events, or a fable fabricated to teach religious principles? Biblical creation is “widely debated . . . today.”2 Jews since Moses, and Christians since the time of Jesus, have believed Genesis 1-2 to be literal accounts of God’s creation. Today, doubts prevail. Andrew Snelling remarks:

(For) Bible-believing churchgoers, an alarming number of Christian leaders and teachers . . . believe that God ‘created’ through evolutionary processes . . . (and) that Adam and Eve are the names of a human pair who descended from a hominid population . . . .3

Antecedent to the discussion of man’s creation is the consideration of the origin of the cosmos: aspects of beginnings that sometimes seem to be firmly settled by science outside of any need for a god. Images of the cosmos, popularized by vivid space photographs, make man appear infinitesimal in an evolutionary world where chance “creates” and man is his own god. Biblical creation is considered by liberal Christians and humanists to be fable, probably derivative of ancient creation myths. Daniel C. Harlow, considering the literary genre of Genesis 1-11, states that, “the narratives . . .were probably written and read as both paradigmatic and protohistoric—imaginative portrayals of an actual epoch in a never-to-be-repeated past that also bears archetypal significance for the ongoing human situation.4 For Cornelis van der Kooi, however, “the world is . . . in the midst of a universe that God willingly created for his glory, and
____________________
1 All references to the Bible are from the King James Version unless otherwise noted.
2 Charles C. Ryrie, Basic Theology: A Popular Guide to Systematic Theology (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 1986), 195.
3 Andrew A. Snelling, Earth’s Catastrophic Past: Geology, Creation & the Flood, Vol. 1. (Dallas: Institute for Creation Research, 2009), 10.
4 Daniel C. Harlow, “After Adam: Reading Genesis in an Age of Evolutionary Science,” Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 62, no. 3 (September 2010), 182. (Emphasis Harlow’s).

4
for the wellbeing of human(s).”5 The entire OT is a “revelation from God in view of His earthly people,” states William Kelly.6 It is a “story of one race, on one planet, in one age,” says F. A. Filby.7
James C. Peterson recognizes that “science and theology will sometimes interact . . . . (since) They are . . . ultimately studying different aspects of one reality.”8 The biblical account of Creation, as the essential bedrock of conservative evangelical theology, is unassailable by modern science.
Scope
The boundaries of Genesis 1:1-2 and its relationship to science will be reviewed, evaluating the strengths and limitations of each, encompassing the general revelation of God “which lighteth every man that cometh into the world” (John 1:9b). We will not attempt to prove the biblical account of creation, but rather to show the positive relationship between the Bible and the facts of science, if not popular dogma. The place of creation in conservative evangelical theology will be discussed, with input from conservative and liberal theologians in a meaningful manner for Christians today. This will be approached from a conservative evangelical worldview that accepts the Word of God as inspired, accurate, and complete.
____________________
5 Cornelis van der Kooi, “International Journal of Systematic Theology,” Volume 18, Number 1, January 2016, 47-48.
6 Kelly, William Kelly, In the Beginning and the Adamic Earth: An Exposition of, texts Genesis I-II, New Edition, Revised (London: Bible Treasury, 1894), 1.
7 F. A. Filby, Creation Revealed: A Study of Genesis Chapter One in the Light of Modern Science (Westwood, NJ: Fleming H Revell, Co., 1963), 13.
8 James C. Peterson, “Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith,” Vol. 68, Number 1, March 2016, 1.
5
Introductory Matters
Authorship
Genesis does not explicitly state who wrote it. For early Jews this was a settled issue: God directed and Moses wrote.9 “The early church, the church of later centuries, and the Jews almost unanimously accepted Mosaic authorship,”10 on the authority of tradition and Scripture.11 Higher criticism in the 19th century investigated the Bible in new ways, leading to the conclusion that the entire Pentateuch was of much later origin: Moses could not be the author.12 The traditional position, however, was “too strongly supported to be dismissed by liberal rationalization.”13 This is not to dismiss the idea that Moses compiled Genesis using earlier sources.14 H. C. Leupold writes, “it seems highly probable that godly men preserved a reliable record of God’s revelation and dealings . . . with the most painstaking care.”15 This is consistent with Luke’s methodology in the NT (e.g. Luke 1:1-2).
Date and Place
The book was probably written between the beginning of the Exodus and Moses’ death just prior to the invasion of Canaan under Joshua. The date could be pushed back subsequent to
____________________
9 H. C. Leupold, Exposition of Genesis, Vol. 1, Chapters 1-19 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1945), 6. See Luke 16:31 and 24:27.
10 Snelling, 16.
11 Leupold, 6. See also: Exodus 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Lev 1:1; 4:1; 6:1, 8, 19, 24; 7:22, 28; 9:1, etc.; Deut 1:1; 17:18, 19; 27:1-8; 31:9; 31:24.
12 Snelling, 16.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
15 Leupold, 8.
6
his call in the desert at the burning bush without prejudice (cf. Ex 3). Scripture is silent on the issue. The location would, in either case, be the wilderness of Mesopotamia south of the Dead Sea. Revisionists would have the book written as late as the Exile, or during the United Monarchy by multiple authors, but these positions show little consensus and no prior articulation by early Judaism.16
Destination and Occasion
The message is universal, but the intended destination is the Chosen People of God, Israel, perhaps as an introduction to the God of Moses who led them out of Egypt, gave them the Law, and would lead them into the Promised Land of Abraham.
Purpose
The purpose of Genesis is to establish a relationship between God and His Chosen People.17 Genesis 1:1-2 establishes YHWH as the sole, unique, sovereign Creator.18
Creation: Genesis 1:1-2 In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters
Genesis 1:1-2 describes the creation of the physical universe including the great bodies of the cosmos, the earth, and the natural laws that govern the behavior of matter, energy, and space.
____________________
16 Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton, Survey of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1991), 90.
17 Leupold, 9.
18 Hill, 94-95.
7
The natural laws and the matter that they regulate define the ordinary; they set the boundaries of the miraculous. Creation was not within those bounds. Ryrie acknowledges that the account “does not answer every question . . . but what it does reveal must be recognized as truth.”19 Millard J. Erickson elaborates: rather than constituting a science or history textbook, God’s special revelation is “relational, . . . knowledge about . . . for the purpose of the knowledge of.”20
Genesis begins with the beginning, distinguishing it from Mesopotamian accounts that are often compared with it. Uniquely, the singular pre-existing god elohiym creatio ex nihilo.21 “The opening pericope of Genesis . . . describes God’s work of making the world and everything in it in six days followed by a Sabbath,” states C. John Collins.22 Nowhere is a “defense given concerning the existence of God.”23 Erickson suggests that it was “virtually inconceivable” to the early Jews that anything could happen independently of this God.24 Collins affirms that the Masoretic Text is in agreement with the “oldest versions, in Greek and Latin”25
Exegetical Considerations
Re’shiyth ‘elohiym bara [7225, 430,1254]:26 this is the familiar and powerful “In the
_______________
19 Ryrie, 206.
20 Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2013), 145. (Emphasis added).
21 Ryrie, 207.
22 C. John Collins, Genesis 1-4: A Linguistic, Literary, and Theological Commentary (Phillipsburg, PA: P and R Publications, 2006), 39.
23 Paul Enns, The Moody Handbook of Theology, Revised and Expanded (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2014), 41.
24 Erickson, 320.
25 Collins, 45.
26 The Hebrew will be transliterated and transposed to the English word order, and referenced to Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance in-text in brackets unless otherwise noted.
8
beginning God created.” Re’shiyth here conveys beginning, a period with both a starting and an ending point, according to E. E. Vine.27 Kelly disagrees, arguing that the absence of an article makes it undefined; more correctly rendered, “in beginning,” pointing not to a fixed point, but “of old.”28 Translated 19 times in KJV as “beginning(s),” the noun is “substantively firstfruits.”29 Translated thus 12 times, this nuance suggests a sense of: “The firstfruits of God’s creation . . . ,”30 foreshadowing the first recorded sacrifice to this god by Cain, whose indiscriminate “fruit of the ground” was rejected (4:3), while Able’s, drawn from the “firstlings of his flock,” was accepted (1:4); and the Law, requiring the best sacrifice for sin offerings (i.e. Lev 2:14): both pointing to Jesus Christ, the firstfruits of those “made alive” through His sacrifice (1 Cor 15:20). The unity of Scripture begins with the beginning.
‘Elohiym [430], the Hebrew supreme God, “has the peculiarity of a plural substantive with a singular verb.”31 In contrast to the Mesopotamian creation myths, He proclaims: “I am God, and there is none else” (Is 46:9a). It is rendered gods for pagan deities, “who have not made the heavens and the earth” (Jer 10:11).32 ‘Elohiym offers neither history nor provenance, yet for the inspired writer, there was no question: ‘elohiym is who He says He is: Hayah Hayah [1961]: “I AM THAT I AM” (Ex 3:14).
When translated create in the Hebrew Bible, bara is always an act of God, referring to
____________________
27 E. E. Vine, Merrill F. Unger, William White, Jr., Vine’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1996), 107.
28 Kelly, 10.
29 Ibid.
30 Author’s rendition.
31 Kelly, 7.
32 Filby, 22
9
the object created rather than tools and materials. Textually, the verb bara is in the perfect tense rather than an infinitive construct. Grammatically, the normal use of the perfect in the opening of a pericope (1:1) is to designate an “event that took place earlier,” (cf. 12:1); and while it is “possible that this tense denotes a summary of the account,” it is inconsistent with the newer reading; and theologically, the Jewish understanding of creation ex nihilo (cf. Is 45:12).33 Here the object of bara is everything: shamayim ‘eth ‘erets [8064, 853, 776], “the heaven and the earth” (1:1b).34 Shamayim is a dual that carries the connotation of both the heaven where the birds fly and clouds roam as well as the habitat of the celestial bodies.35 It is translated as both singular and plural in KJV (e.g. 2:4). ‘Eth is used to point out the object of the verb bara.36 ‘Erets throughout the OT is used in the common sense of Earth or its surface, the ground, providing continuity with the sixth day summary in 2:1, and with erets bara in 2:4.37
Collins cautions that the doctrine of creatio ex nihilo should be based upon the text as a whole, that does imply creation from nothing, rather than just bara alone, since the same verb appears in 1:27, in which God “created” the man, and in 2:7, where He “formed” the man.38
Creation at this point is tohuw bohuw [8414, 922], “without form and void” (1:2a), a disorganized emptiness, reflected by Jeremiah (4:23), and Isaiah (Is 34:11). Earth, tohuw bohuw, was choshek [2822], without light, in literal darkness, but with overtones of figurative death and
____________________
33 Collins, 54-55.
34 See Genesis 1:1, 21, 27; 2:3, 4; 5:1, 2; 6:7; Is 45:7, 12; Is 41:20; 42:5, 43:1, 7; 45:7; 45:8, etc.
35 Collins, 42.
36 Strong’s, [853].
37 Ibid., 41
38 Ibid., 55.
10
destruction, of sorrow and wickedness, according to Strong’s. David Tsumura disagrees, concluding that Earth was not in “chaos,” but “unproductive and uninhabited.”39 Kelly adopts the “Gap Theory” arguing that the second sentence is separated in time and effect from the first: bara was created complete and perfect, but degenerated into the state of tohuw bohuw before Day One began (1:3.)40 KJV translators were consistent in using “dark” or “darkness,” although rendering it “night” and “obscurity” once each. This is the same choshek that we see in 1:2 where God spoke light into existence, and in 1:4 where he called the darkness night. This darkness was tehom [8415], “upon the face of the deep, which “simply means ‘the depths of the sea,'” according to Collins.41 Attempts made to link this to Mesopotamian creation myths have been refuted by Tsumura42 and Alexander Heidel.43 The verse concludes: ruakh ‘elohiym rachaoh mayim [7307, 430, 7363, 4325], the “Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.” Gordon J. Wenham reads ruakh ‘elohiym as “wind,” or “wind of God.”44 This is disputed by Collins who considers it a composite expression consistently rendered as “Spirit of God” in the OT.”45 Rachaph [7363] suggests that this Spirit flutters (Deut 32:11), moves (Gen 1:2), or shakes (Jer 23:9) over the “face of the waters” in a proprietary or nurturing manner.
The English rendering in KJV is fully consistent with the Hebrew Masoretic text.
____________________
39 David Tsumura, The Earth and the Waters in Genesis 1and 2: A Linguistic Investigation, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1989), 41-43.
40 Kelly, 10-19.
41 Collins, 45.
42 Tsumura, 45-47.
43 Alexander Heidel, The Babylonian Genesis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 98-101.
44 Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis 1-15, World Bible Commentary (Waco: Word Publishing, 1987),16-17.
45 Collins, 45.
11
Genesis 1:1-2 and Science
A basic question is, “Should the universe look like it had a beginning?”46 Aquinas argued that philosophy, which then included the sciences, was not able to prove that the universe did or did not have a beginning.47 This has not changed. Process Theology, largely parallel with evolutionary theory, argues that creation (rather than evolution) is an ongoing low-frequency process that provides an infinite and expanding variety of the created, explains Erickson.48 Immanuel Velekovsky asserts that, “By the end of the nineteenth century the war between the theory of evolution and the theory of creation in six days, less than six thousand years ago, was concluded, with victory to the theory of evolution.”49 Current scientific theories are based upon the principle of uniformitarianism. This doctrine holds that matter, energy, and space function today exactly as they always have, without changes or variations. There is a trend for Christians to accept or adapt current theories into their theologies to conform to the reality claimed for those theories.
The Scientific Method
Many disciplines claim to be scientific, but fail the litmus test: the classical scientific method is a rigorous protocol that requires: (1) physical observation, (2) development of a hypothesis, (3) experimental testing, (4) repetition and refinement, (5) peer review and
__________________
46 Collins, 256.
47 Aquinas, Suma Theologica, 1.46.
48 Erickson, 342.
49 Immanuel Velekovsky, Earth in Upheaval (NY: Dell Publishing Company, 1955), 270.
12
replication.50 Today, processes that do not meet these characteristics are considered scientific, including “proof” generated by mathematical models. Jose Wuda acknowledges “many ‘pseudo-scientific’ theories which wrap themselves in a mantle of apparent experimental evidence but are nothing but statements of faith.”51 John L. Casti candidly notes that “There are no universal, absolute, unchangeable ‘truths’ in science.”52 Alone in history, the biblical account of Creation is unchanging.
Cosmology
One cannot look at the night skies without a sense of awe. For the Christian, it is a display created by God. For the humanist, it is an expanding universe that promises the discovery-to-come of life on other worlds. Ancient Mesopotamian astronomers have left many tables that recorded the movements of visible stars and planets. Science postulates that the entirety of existing matter, energy and space was once compressed within a singularity, a black hole, that exploded in a Big Bang, distributing all into an expanding cosmos. Celestial mechanics, the study of that expanding universe emanating from a single point,53 is not disputed by the Genesis account, although the time proposed leaves room for discussion. Casti acknowledges that “no one knows how a new star is formed.”54 Wuda sums up the problem: “we
cannot perform experiments” replicating past cosmological events.55 Computer simulations are
____________________
50 Jose Wuda, “The Scientific Method.” UCR Physics, 1998. Acc. 3 August 2017. http://physics.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics7/Notes_www/node6.html, npn.
51 Ibid.
52 John L. Casti, Paradigms Lost (NY: William Morrow and Company, 1989), 12.
53 Gilluly, James, Aaron C Waters, C. Waters, and A. O. Woodford, Principles of Geology, 3rd ed. (SF: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1968), 565.
54 Wuda, npn.
55 Ibid.
13
substituted for the scientific method. An example would be the daily weather forecast, where accuracy is not a hallmark. Extend the forecast backward, increasing the timespan from hours and days to millennia and eons, and an idea of the diminishing accuracy appears. This approach provides statistical results within specified degrees of certainty, and has valid applications when the limits are not disregarded. The Genesis account eliminates these problems without requiring any adaptation or “revision” of doctrine or facts.
Physics
The interface of physics and Genesis embraces both philosophical and practical aspects. Philosophically, physics seeks the “grand verification of everything, . . . the unity of reality,” according to J. T. Fraser.56 Consistent with contemporary science, this quest rejects the miraculous, therefore any creator. Instead of a unified theory, limited solutions are proposed and replaced. 57 The Bible announced the unification theory 2,000 years ago (cf. Heb 1:9-17).
Of particular interest is the practical application of the decay of radioactive elements to the measurement of time. Radioactive “parent” elements decay into “child” elements at a statistically regular rate called a half-life that can be viewed as a clock. The application of this phenomenon by Bertram Boltwood in 1907 to historical geology allowed scientists to “date” rocks that contain the appropriate elements.58 From this application, the age of the earth is given in billions of years. Up to this point, there has been no problem between physics and Genesis 1,
____________________
56 Fraser, J. T. Fraser, The Genesis and Evolution of Time: A Critique of Interpretation in Physics (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1982), 176.
57 Jefferson Hane Weaver, The World of Physics: The Evolutionary Cosmos and the Limits of Science, Vol. 2. (NY: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 191-194.
58 Bertram Boltwood, 1907, “The Ultimate Disintegration Products of the Radio-active Elements, Part 3: The Disintrigation Products of Uranium.” American Journal of Science 4. 23 (134). Accessed 9 August 2017. http://www.ajsonline.org/content/s4-23/134/78, 77-88.
14
but radiometric dating ages are clearly at odds with a creation period of six days some 6,000 years ago. The answer lies in preconceptions and interpretation rather than the evidence. Age is interpolated from the ratio between the parent and the child elements. The original ratio is crucial to accuracy. The ratios adopted are speculation: they cannot be tested. Not only are igneous rocks in the mantle and core being constantly renewed and mixed, but natural radiation in the atmosphere “contaminates” samples at uneven rates. Calculations based on these assumptions are repeatable, giving them an appearance of fact, but only through the repetition of the same unverified assumptions. A far different date results if we were to use Bishop Ussher’s date of Creation of 4004 BC,57 backing up parent-child ratios from current measured amounts. This would yield dates compatible with Genesis 1. In either case, there is room for discussion of circularity. The problem is not with the data, but with the presuppositions.
Geology
The observations of physical geology are little disputed. The construct of core, mantle, and crust are well documented.58 The crust, the layer that includes the continents and the great seas, is the most accessible, and most diverse in composition and geologic activity.59 Immanuel Velekovsky observed, “To the surprise of many scientists . . . mountains have travelled, since older formations have been pushed up over the top of younger ones.”60 Specialists who study volcanoes and movements in the earth’s crust describe violent activity, past and present. This activity supports a unique and momentous initial creation (1:1-2) and Third Day when God
____________________
57 S. J. Gould, Eight Little Piggies: Reflections in Natural History (NY: W. W. Norton & Co., 1993), 181.
58 Gilluly, 473.
59 Ibid., 475.
60 Velekovsky, 70.
15
commanded the dry land to appear (1:9-10) as well as the later global flood of Genesis 6-8. The world tohuw bohuw was one grand sea (1:2, 6). The crust was either not formed, or was being formed (1:9-10). Some scientists suggest that all that God created was mature, having the appearance of age.61 This theory would have the submerged crust with initial sedimentary features and fossils formed in 1:1-2.
Historical Geology is the discipline that deals with geological events in time, drawing “virtually all knowledge” from the physical sciences, states Raymond C. Moore,62 filtering the facts through an evolutionary lens. This discipline minimally explores the age of non-sedimentary rocks, concentrating its efforts in fossiliferous depositions that, from a creationist viewpoint, would begin with Day Three (1:9-13), unless one understands 1:1 to include “aged” sedimentary strata as part of the initial creation.63 These acts of creation challenge the propositional assumptions of radiometric dating, causing the extremely old dates that we commonly see, as does the evidence of catastrophic beginnings that include lesser events today, when attempts are made to fit them into uniformitarian philosophy.64 Facts accepted by other disciplines within geology are often in concert with God’s account of creation, but the precepts of Historical Geology place it in the same philosophical category as evolution. None of the facts are in conflict with the Genesis account.
In this necessarily brief summary of science and the biblical account, we see that facts agree with the Word. Apparent discrepancies continue to exist, but history shown that additional
____________________
61 Ryrie, 210
62 Raymond C. Moore, Introduction to Historical Geology, 2nd ed. (NY: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1958), 1.
63 Ryrie, 209-211
64 Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, Vol. 1, 12th ed. (London: John Murray, 1875), 298
16
investigation will continue with a progressive harmonizing without compromise of those facts with Scripture.
Theological Considerations
We can only survey a few key doctrines in this paper. Warren Wiersbe muses that the question of beginnings “may seem like an impractical hypothetical question . . . (but) the fact that He created something suggests that he must have had some magnificent purpose in mind;” raising the question, “what does it teach us about God and ourselves?”65 God’s first recorded act is explicitly documented, and is grandly exhibited by the very existence, magnificence, and orderliness of that act.66 With this opening, ‘elohiym lays the cornerstone for the doctrine of Progressive Revelation that continues through The Revelation.67 The doctrine of Creatio ex Nihilo establishes the infinitude of the Creator who is distinct and separate from His creation, according to Louis Berkhof.68 Calvin articulated the doctrine of His Sufficiency when he advised that in everything, we both acknowledge our dependence upon Him and His sufficiency in providing and upholding all of His creation.”69 From these foundations Jesus both acknowledged the triune Godhead and commanded His followers to evangelize the world with the assurance that He would be with them (and us) “always, even to the end of the age” (Matt 28:18-20) with redemption and great power (Eph 1).
____________________
65 Warren W. Wiersbe, The Bible Exposition Commentary: Pentateuch (Colorado Springs: Victor, 2001), 10.
66 Enns, 154.
67 Ibid., 24.
68 Louis Berkhof, Systematic Theology: New Combined Edition (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1938), 134-135.
69 John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2008), 1.1.22.
17
Summary and Conclusions
Our thesis is that the biblical account of Creation is foundational for doctrine and is supported, or at least not refuted, by the data of science. Knowledge of God is derived from the Bible, whose trustworthiness depends on the validity of its parts. Creation as described in Genesis and affirmed throughout the Bible must be true and accurate in order to justify the faith of the believer. Attempts to explain creation in naturalistic terms are incomplete and short-lived. Alvin Plantinga requires a deeper understanding that conforms the world to God rather than a lesser god to the world: it is the difference between “having proof,” and “having knowledge of the truth.”70 Science cannot consider the very beginning: theories of origins of the cosmos and life all rest upon pre-existing matter, energy, and space from an unknown source. Creation according to God has never been proven wrong by man, even if not accepted by him.
Scripture supports the Genesis account. Jesus and others refer to it as a historical event. Bible stands upon that foundation, a structure upon which theologians can confidently build sound doctrine. When the scriptural mandate to investigate (2 Tim 2:15) is heeded, we learn that the popularly accepted rift between science and the Bible is not based upon the facts of science, but on a worldly philosophy that rejects God, the Bible, and the miraculous in the quest for the rational by man separated from his Maker (Eph 4:17-19).
Re’shiyth ‘elohiym bara is not a myth taken from others and adapted to a new god, but an introduction by the Almighty God of Himself to mankind.
____________________
70 James K. Beilby, Thinking about Apologetics: What It Is and Why We Do It (Downe’s Grove, Il: InterVarsity Press, 2011). 81.
18
Bibliography
Augustine. The Literal Meaning of Genesis, Vol. 1, Books 1-6. Translated by John Hammond Taylor. New York: Paulist Press, 1982.
Beilby, James K. Thinking About Apologetics: What It Is and Why We Do It. Downe’s Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2011.
Berkhof, Louis. Systematic Theology: New Combined Edition. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1938.
Boltwood, Bertram. “The Ultimate Disintegration Products of the Radio-active Elements, Part 3: The Disintegration Products of Uranium.” American Journal of Science 4, no. 23 (1907):134. Accessed 9 August 2017. http://www.ajsonline.org/content/s4-23/134/78.
Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Translated by Henry Beveridge. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2008.
Carr, J. A. The Life and Times of James Ussher: Archbishop of Aamagh. London: Wells, Gardner, Dalton and Company, 1895.
Casti, John L. Paradigms Lost. NY: William Morrow and Company, 1989.
Collins, C. John. Genesis 1-4: A Linguistic, Literary, and Theological Commentary. Phillipsburg, PA: P and R Publications, 2006.
Curvier, Georges. Essay on the Theory of the Earth, 5th ed. Translated by Samuel L. Mitchell. NY: Kirk and Mercein, 1827.
Enns, Paul. The Moody Handbook of Theology, Revised and Expanded. Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2014.
Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2013.
Filby, F. A. Creation Revealed: A Study of Genesis Chapter One in the Light of Modern Science. Westwood, NJ: Fleming H. Revell, Co., 1963.
Fraser, J. T. The Genesis and Evolution of Time: A Critique of Interpretation in Physics. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1982.
Gould, S. J. Eight Little Piggies: Reflections in Natural History. NY: W. W. Norton & Co., 1993.
Gilluly, James, Aaron C. Waters, and A. O. Woodford. Principles of Geology. 3rd ed. SF: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1968.
19
Harlow, Daniel C. “After Adam: Reading Genesis in an Age of Evolutionary Science.” Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith. Vol. 62, Number 3 (September 2010): 179-195.
Heidel, Alexander. The Babylonian Genesis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951.
Hill, Andrew E. and John H. Walton. Survey of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1991.
Johnson, Frederick. 1952. “The Significance of the Dates for Archeology and Geology,” Radiocarbon Dating, Editor W. F. Libby.
Kooi, Cornelis van der. “International Journal of Systematic Theology.” Vol. 18, no.1 (January 2016): 47-48.
Leupold, H. C. Exposition of Genesis, Vol. 1, Chapters 1-19. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1945.
Kelly, William. In the Beginning and the Adamic Earth: An Exposition of Texts: Genesis I-II. New ed. (Previously in Bible Treasury) London, 1894.
Lyell, Charles. Principles of Geology. Vol. 1, 12th ed. London: John Murray, 1875.
McFarland, Ian. From Nothing: A Theology of Creation. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2014.
Moore, Raymond C. Introduction to Historical Geology. 2nd ed. NY: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1958.
Peterson, James C. “Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith.” Vol. 68, no. 1, March 2016.
Ryrie, Charles C. Basic Theology; A Popular Systematic Guide to Understanding Biblical Truth. Chicago: Moody Publishers, 1999.
Snelling, Andrew A. Earth’s Catastrophic Past: Geology, Creation & the Flood. Vol. 1. Dallas: Institute for Creation Research, 2009.
Strong, James. The New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1996.
Tsumura, David. The Earth and the Waters in Genesis 1 and 2: A Linguistic Investigation. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1989.
Velekovsky, Immanuel. Earth in Upheaval. NY: Dell Publishing Company., 1955.
Vine, E. E., Merrill F. Unger, William White, Jr. Vine’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New testament Words. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1996.
20
Weaver, Jefferson Hane. The World of Physics: The Evolutionary Cosmos and the Limits of Science. Vol. 2. NY: Simon and Schuster, 1987.
Wenham, Gordon J. Genesis 1-15, World Bible Commentary. Waco: Word Publishing, 1987.
Wiersbe, Warren W. The Bible Exposition Commentary: Pentateuch. Colorado Springs: Victor, 2001.
Wright, William B. The Quaternary Ice Age. London: Macmillan and Co., 1937.
Wuda, Jose. “The Scientific Method.” UCR Physics, 1998. Acc. 3 August 2017. http://physics.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics7/Notes_www/node6.html

The Synagogue: A Steppingstone from the Temple to the Church

LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
The Synagogue
A Stepping Stone from the Temple to the Church
Submitted to Dr. Rene A. Lopez, Ph. D.
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of
NBST 510 B03
Spring 2017
New Testament Introduction
by
Robert Beanblossom
1 March 2017
ii
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Political Setting: The Second Temple Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Assyrian Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Babylonian Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Persian Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Greek Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Alexander the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
The Ptolemaic Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Seleucid or Syrian Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Jewish Self-Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Roman Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Jewish Revolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Progressive Revelation—Progressive Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Second Temple Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Synagogue Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Church Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
1
Introduction
The birth, death, and resurrection of Jesus fundamentally changed the relationship
between God the Creator, and man the creature. It dramatically changed the millennia-old
relationship between the god, YHWH, and His Chosen People, the Jews. Shortly after the
resurrected Son of God returned to the right hand of His Father, the Holy Spirit, sent by the
departed Messiah, fell upon a small but faithful remnant of the crowds who had followed
Jesus (Acts 1:12-13) and had hailed him, just days before, as their king (John 12:12-14).1 The
Holy Spirit transformed them from fearful and disillusioned followers into enlightened and
empowered agents of the Most High God (Acts 2:1-4). Emerging from their hiding place in an
upper room in Jerusalem, they boldly proclaimed the Good News of the resurrected Christ (Acts
2:4-7) that “turned the world upside down” (Acts 17:6). The liturgy of the Temple was instantly
obsolete, to be replaced by a new order established by God in the infinity before Creation (see
Heb 9). Even as the dying Lamb of God pronounced: “It is finished” (John 19:30), the barrier to
the Holy of Holies that had limited man’s access to God was torn from top to bottom (Matt
27:51), from God to man. God was now accessible through a new “royal” priesthood of
individual Christians (1 Pet 2:9-10). God’s focus shifted from His Chosen People to the Bride of
the Lamb, a growing corps of multi-national witnesses (Matt 24:14), some of whom had seen
Jesus, but all of whom had experienced Him. It demanded a new order of worship. We will
briefly examine the synagogue as a divinely ordained transitional form between the temple of the
old order and the church of the new order. We will begin with a short review of the political
setting of the Second Temple Period. The synagogue is the stepping stone from the symbolic
liturgy of the Temple to the personal worship of God in the church.
The Political Setting: The Second Temple Period (515 BC—AD70)2
Just prior to its destruction, Solomon’s temple was still the center of Jewish life, but it
___________________
1 Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the King James Version.
2 Andreas J. Kostenberger, L. Scott Kellum, and Charles L. Quarels, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown; An Introduction to the New Testament, (Nashville, TN: B. and H. Academic Publishers, 2009), 64.
2
had ceased to be the God-centered institution that it once was.3 The united monarchy of David
and Solomon had given way to the rival kingdoms of Israel in the north and Judah in the south.
Jerusalem and the temple were in Judah.4 “Ominous for the future of Israel and Judah alike was
their own shortsighted hostility toward each other,” causing almost constant border warfare and
dissipation of resources that ultimately led to their downfall.5
The Assyrian Period (722-606 BC)
Each kingdom forged independent protective alliances rather than seeking the
protection of their God. Without Him these alliances were never enough: only brief peaceful
respites broke the pain of war. Assyria grew in power under Tiglath-Pileser III, who created an
empire stretching from the Persian Gulf to Armenia, dominating Syria and Palestine.6 Israel’s
Hoshea, encouraged by Tyre, attempted to develop an alliance with Egypt, but Egypt lacked
strength and interest in this northern region.7 Shalmaneser V, upon coming to the Syrian throne,
invaded Israel, capturing its king.8 Following three years of siege, resistance collapsed in 722
BC and Israel ceased to exist. At least 27 thousand Israelites were exiled and absorbed into
Assyria and Media (2 Kgs 17:23-24),9 becoming known as the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.10 King
Ahaz allied Judah with Tiglath-pileser of Assyria to secure protection from Kings Rezin of Syria
and Remaliah of Israel. Judah was spared for the moment (2 Kgs 16). Hezekiah, supported by
public opinion,11 succeeded Ahaz. He attempted to bribe the Assyrian king with gold, silver, and
temple treasures (2 Kgs 18:14-16). Unappeased, the Assyrians placed Jerusalem under siege,
____________________
3 Michael Grant, The History of Ancient Israel, (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1984), 120.
4 Ibid., 120.
5 Ibid., 121.
6 Ibid.,120.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid., 121.
11 Ibid., 139.
3
Hezekiah prayed and God intervened (2 Kgs 19:15-19). In 714 BC the Assyrians withdrew
without battle (2 Kgs 19:35-36).12 Syria’s power was on the wane; Babylon had become the
major power in the region.13
The Babylonian Period (606-539 BC)14
This period begins with the Babylonian occupation of Israel (2 Kgs 25:1-8) in 605/606 BC.15
Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem and his troops destroyed Solomon’s Temple (2 Kgs 25:9). He
sent upper class Jews and temple treasures to Babylon (2 Kgs 24:8-16).16 Zedekiah was
appointed king by Nebuchadnezzar, but renewed the Egyptian connection and revolted against
Babylonian in 593 BC (2 Kgs 24:17-20).17 Nebuchadnezzar responded with another siege of
Jerusalem that lasted from 589 BC to 586 BC.18 Jerusalem fell, the victim of devastating famine
and disease. The First Temple Period had ended, God’s chosen people were dispersed, with the
Ten Lost Tribes apparently being assimilated into their adopted cultures, while those from Judea
in Babylon retained their identity as they drew closer to their God.19 At least some of the Jews
left in Judea, fearing further Babylonian retribution, fled to Egypt (2 Kgs 25:22-26).20 Time
passed and kings changed. Nabonidos, fourth successor to Nebuchadnezzar, was not equal the
task of empire, and the cycle continued: Babylon fell to the growing empire of Persia.21
____________________
12 Ibid., Kostenberger, 68.
13 Ibid., Grant, 141.
14 Ibid., Kostenberger, 64.
15 Ibid., 68.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid., 69.
20 Ibid., Grant, 120.
21 Ibid., Kostenberger, 69.
4
The Persian Period (539-331)22
Cyrus II the Great of Persia defeated King Nabonidos without conflict in 539 BC by
entering and taking Babylon through the Euphrates River channel into the city.23 Among Cyrus’
spoils of war were the various peoples whom the Babylonians had resettled in exile. An
unknowing agent of God (Isa 44:28-45:1-5), Cyrus issued an edict in 538 BC that permitted the
return of many of these exiles to their homelands, including Judeans (Ezra 1:1).24 Some Jews,
who were apparently satisfied with their new lifestyle, chose to stay in Babylon, while others
returned in waves over several years to Jerusalem.25 Cyrus, far more benevolent than the
Babylonians, supported and promoted the rebuilding efforts in Jerusalem. He sent temple
treasures recovered from the Babylonians26 to Prince Sheshbazzar of Judea (Ezra 1:7-11), with
financial aid that included funds he solicited from Babylonian Jews (see Ezra 1). Reconstruction
was often disrupted by neighboring states who sought to block Judah’s rebirth.27 Limited
funding, manpower, and wavering interest contributed to the slow realization of the project.28
Over the years, succeeding Persian kings continued to send Jewish emissaries to complete the
temple and city walls, including Nehemiah (Neh 2:17), Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 5). King
Darius, determined to get the project completed, sent Ezra with 1,496 chosen men who laid the
foundations in 520 BC and completed construction in 516 BC.29 The Second Temple Period had
begun. Persian reign as a major world power was on the wane as the Macedonians, under
Alexander the Great, took control of the world.
____________________
22 Ibid., Kostenberger, 69.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid
26 Azriel Eisenberg, The Synagogue Through the Ages, (NY: Bloch Publishing Company, 1974), 34.
26 Ibid, Kostenberger, 69.
27 Ibid., Eisenberg., 36.
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid.
5
The Greek Period (331-167 BC)30
Alexander the Great (331-320 BC)31
Alexander ascended to power when his father, Philip of Macedonia, was assassinated in
336 BC, inheriting the Greek city-states as his power base.32 He moved swiftly, conquering lands
from Greece to Egypt, probably including Judah, known at the time as Palestine Syria, with little
if any resistance, although historians of the time ignored Judah in their writings.33 Alexander
allowed a great degree of religious freedom and self-identity for those who conformed. He
and his successors instituted intense Hellenization throughout the conquered lands to assure
conformity, renaming cities, building new ones, and introducing Greek customs and language,
causing conflict with conservative Jews in Jerusalem.34 Alexander’s early death in lead to the
division of the empire among his generals and a long-lasting power struggle among those vying
for power.35 Michael Grant underscores this:
When Alexander died in 323 (BC), his huge empire split up into a number of separate Hellenistic kingdoms ruled by his Macedonian followers . . . Three principal dynasties eventually emerged: the Antigonids in Macedonia, the Seleucids in Syria and Mesopotamia and lands farther east, and the Ptolemies in Egypt and certain eastern Mediterranean coastlands and hinterlands. These Ptolemaic possessions included ‘Judea.’”36
The empire that Alexander had won with so great vigor proved to be held together by the force
of his personality and the energy of his person. The glory of Rome was to be consumed from
within as was that of the previous great empires.
____________________
30 Ibid., Kostenberger, 71.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid., 73.
34 Ibid.
35 Ibid., 75
36 Ibid., Grant, 199.
6
.The Ptolemaic Period (320-198 BC)37
Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander’s generals, was appointed to the throne of Egypt by
the Roman Senate and established the only successful dynasty of Alexander’s generals.38 “Judea
under Ptolemaic reign remains clouded in obscurity,” according to Kostenberger, et al., who
continued, “According to the few trustworthy sources that survive, Judea evidently continued to
govern itself . . .”39 as a vassal of the Ptolemaic dynasties with a theocratic government centered
on the temple and temple rulers. “As the third century (BC) proceeded on its course, Judea
continued to be a bone of contention between the Ptolemies and their Seleucid neighbors and
rivals in Syria.40
The Seleucid or Syrian Period (198-167 BC)41
In 198 BC, the Ptolemies Dynasty, under Ptolemy V, lost Israel at the battle of Paneas to
Antiochus III, transferring control of that region to the Seleucid Syrians.42 The victory was short-
lived, as dynamic stresses in the area brought the Jews to the battle in their own interest.43 It was
a difficult time, at best, with civil unrest increasing in cycles as the Syrians outlawed Jewish
customs and traditions. Antiochus III “picked a fight with the Romans,” that ended badly for
him.44 Antiochus IV, who called himself Epiphanes, the Glorious One, assumed power and
continued the intense Hellenization of captured lands and peoples. He looked to the temple as a
source of revenue, while entering a program of self-aggrandizement, attempted to ban Judaism.45
In so doing, he prohibited the “. . . the Torah, circumcision, festivals, and offerings to Yahweh.
____________________
37 Ibid., Kostenberger, 75.
38 Ibid., 74.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid., Grant, 204.
41 Ibid., 75.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid.76.
45 Ibid., 77.
7
Perhaps most devastating of all . . . he dedicated the Jewish temple to Zeus” (1 Macc 1),46
profaning it in an act known as the Abomination of Desolation as predicted by the prophet
Daniel (Dan 9:27). Zeus was equated by the Jews with the “Phoenician (Canaanite) Baal
Shamin”47 that the had entangled the Jews for generations upon entering the Promised Land,
only to be renounced finally during the revival of the Babylonian captivity. Jews who resisted the
desecration of their religion and attempted to continue to serve their God were dealt with
severely.48 The period ended with the Jewish Maccabean Revolt.
Jewish Self-Rule (167-63 BC)49
The extreme self-aggrandizement hiding in the Hellenization of his domain by
Antiochus IV led to a popular uprising and intermittent periods of Jewish self-rule.50 Judah
Maccabeus took over the revolt begun by his father Mattathias, in 166 BC.51 Hailed as a
“guerrilla genius,”52 his victories against the Syrians included the return of Jerusalem to the Jews,
and subsequent cleansing and rededication of the temple in 164 BC, removing profane Greek
elements: the event is commemorated even today as Hanukkah, the Festival of Lights (1 Macc
2).54 He was killed in battle in 160 BC and replaced by his brother Jonathan,55 who took the
Mediterranean port of Joppa from the Seleucids. Returning it to them in a diplomatic move, he
____________________
46 Ibid., Grant, 204.
47 Ibid. 209.
48 Ibid., Kostenberger , 77.
49 Ibid.
50 Ibid., Grant, 210.
51 Ibid.
52 Ibid.
53 Ibid.
54 Ibid.
55 Ibid., 212.
56 Ibid.
57 Ibid.
8
received formal “recognition as the ‘governor of Judea.’”56 Jonathan’s secular interests and
international maneuverings raised the ire of his family and countrymen; seting the stage for
future conflicts.57 When he died in battle, the last surviving brother, Simon, came to power,
achieving what his brothers had not: he achieved formal independence for Judah.58 Climaxing as
it did, Grand proclaimed, “Thus, the Maccabean Rebellion had finally triumphed—the only
successful revolt, in defense of the religion, that the history of the ancient world can provide,”
lasting for “eighty years to come (with only brief intermission).”59 Simon was rewarded by his
grateful subjects with the High Priesthood, along with military, religious and executive
privileges, that proved the beginning of the end for the short-lived independence of the Judean
state.60 The Maccabean Period ended with the murder of Simon and two of his sons in 135 BC.61
The Hasmoneans dynasty came to power with John Hyrcanus I,62 an efficient
expansionist, who added Moab and Idumea.63 Upon his death in 104 BC, his son, Aristobulus I
rose to power, but died the next year, succeeded by Alexander Jannaeus, who was appointed
king and high priest by John’s wife, who soon married Alexander.64 Evidently, the pair adapted
to Hellenizing influences well: Josephus, in Antiquities, while listing his conquest, remarked:
“He was called a lover of the Grecians; and had conferred many benefits on his country . . .”65
Although expanding the territories to “Solomonic proportions” using mercenaries, the extreme
expansionism and Hellenistic worldview proved unpopular with his countrymen, who revolted,
but lost in a lack of interest.66 Salome, the woman behind the thrones, stepped forward in 76 BC,
____________________
58 Ibid., Grant, 212.
59 Ibid.
60 Ibid., Kostenberger, 79
61 Ibid., 80.
62 Ibid., 81.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
65 Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, 13:318.
66 Ibid., Kostenberger, 81.
9
and ruled in relative peace and prosperity for nine years, making the most of nepotistic
appointments.67 Family members, well trained by their forbearers, contended vigorously for the
throne, inciting civil war, while Rome positioned itself for conquest.
Roman Rule (63 BC-AD 70)68
The Romans displaced the Greeks globally, and the Hasmoneans locally when, in 63 BC,
Pompey conquered Jerusalem ending the Judean civil war following the death of Salome.69
Political infighting still plagued the Romans, with leaders coming and going.70 King Herod the
Great, who had fled to Rome to for safety, “was named “king of Judea” by the Roman Senate in
40 BC,” but did not control it until 37 BC, when in concert with Marc Antony, he helped to
depose Antigonus.71 Herod is remembered in the biblical account during the period following
Jesus’ birth for slaying male children under two years of age when he heard of the birth of the
Child who would be king (Matt 2:15:17); and is remembered in secular history for monumental
egocentric construction projects throughout his realm that included enlarging and beautifying the
temple in Jerusalem.72 Josephus remarks in Antiquities that Herod conducted many grand
building projects that included government buildings, temples, and harbors.73 Caesar Augustus,
emperor at the time Christ was born (Luke 2:1), was followed by a series of Roman appointees
between 6 BC and AD 66. Pontius Pilate, the governor and prefect (Luke 3:1) in Palestine at the
time of Jesus, was the cruel and corrupt politician74 who presided at the trial and sentencing of
Jesus (Matt 27: 11-26), who succumbed to the will of the Jewish hierarchy (Matt 27:1-3),
____________________
67 Ibid, Kostenberger, 81-82.
68 Ibid., 83.
69 Ibid.
70 Ibid.
71 Ibid.
72 Ibid., Grant, 230.
73 Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, 8-9.
74 Ibid., Kostenberger, 86.
10
and popular opinion (Matt 27:24), to convict Him of treason (Mark 15:2, 9). The Church Age
had begun. As persecution of the church increased, so did the problems of Jerusalem.75 With
changes in Rome came changes in Palestine: following Pilate’s death in AD 52, came Felix, then
Festus in AD 59,76 then Florus who, coming to power in AD 61, raided the temple treasury,
provoking the last Jewish revolt. The Jews again fared badly, with the war leading to defeat and
the destruction of their nation for centuries to come.77
Jewish Revolts (AD 66-135)78
The Judeans revolted in AD 66 as grievances peaked. Emperor Caligula declared himself a
god and ordered his statue placed in the temple, reported by Philo in “On the Embassy to
Gaius (Caligula).”79 This abomination was averted by the death of Caligula in AD 41.80
Succeeding him, Nero revoked Roman citizenship of the Jews. Governor Floris detained and
imprisoned a Jewish political delegation and, when taxes fell behind, took temple silver.81
Rioting ensued, and Floris responded with house-to-house searches for dissidents, crucifying
many in the proess.82 Thus, in AD 66, the First Jewish Revolt, known also as the First Roman
War, started.83 As in the past, Jewish hurt and anger were no match for the power of empire:
the nation fell. Jerusalem was slightly behind, but fell also. The defeat includied the
destruction of the temple in AD 70, ending the Second Temple Period and the Jewish nation.84
As God had warned, “I am bringing such evil upon Jerusalem and Judah . . . and I will wipe
____________________
75 A. Bendel, Outlines of Church History, (Reading, PA: Pilger Book Store, 1882), 12.
76 Ibid., Kostenberger, 78.
77 Ibid.
78 Ibid., Kostenberger, 64.
79 Philo, On the Embassy to Gaius, XXX.203, 207-208.
80 Ibid., Kostenberger, 87.
81 Ibid., Grant, 240.
82 Ibid.
83 Ibid.
84 Ibid., Kostenberger, 87.
11
Jerusalem as a man wipeth a dish, wiping it, and turning it upside down. And I will forsake the
remnant of mine inheritance, and deliver them into the hand of their enemies” (2 Kings 12-14).
Progressive Revelation—Progressive Response
From “In the beginning” (Gen 1:1a), through “It is finished” (John 19:30), God’s
inspired writers have given a progressive revelation of His relationship with man including
patterns of worship that He expected (Matt 11:28). We will consider the transition from the
Judaic temple to the Christian Church as a function of worship.
Second Temple Worship
An “important feature of Judaism was the Jerusalem temple, which served as a vital
symbol of national and religious unity.”85 Built by exiles returning from Babylonian captivity
(Ezra 3:8), renovated in 18 BC, and enlarged by Herod in AD 64,86 the Second Temple was a
“magnificent structure.”87 Like the Tabernacle and the First Temple, it was the center of Jewish
life, integrating worship, education, commerce, and the law, but the spiritual quality was gone.
The Ark of the Covenant, the meeting place of God and man in the security of the Holy of
Holies, was missing. It had not been seen since the destruction of the First Temple. In the Second
Temple environment, the priesthood had been restored in function only, as greed and power
struggles polluted both the office and all that the priesthood did. Priestly offices conceived
outside of the Mosaic Law, were political, appointed by the Roman government. These officials
fed on political intrigue and power (Acts 24:1). Theological and political issues divided Jewish
leaders into sects that had their start in the Maccabean period.88 The great Sadducee houses of
Jerusalem supported Herod, then the Romans, with fluid allegiances intended to maintain their
power base.89 The Pharisees, who during the Dispersion were the missionary branch of Judaism,
____________________
85 Ibid., Kostenberger, 99.
86 Ibid.
87 Ibid.
88 Ibid., 103.
89 Ibid., Grant, 236.
12
converting proselytes to the faith,90 in Jesus’ time, had become self-centered and self-serving.
Jesus berated these as having departed from the faith of their fathers, displaying a form of
religious behavior, but not a relationship with God (Matt 3:7). Other factions were sometimes
independent of the Pharisees and Sadducees, while at other times were their radical fringes.
These included the Essenes, described by Pliny the Elder,91 and the Zealots, with whom Jesus’
disciple Simon (not Peter) was associated (Luke 6:15). Second Temple Jews that were
individually distinguishable from other nationalities throughout the empire by dress and custom,
otherwise appeared to be unique nationally simply by having one temple rather than several
temples to many gods. To a large extent, form and function were very similar to neighboring
pagans. After the destruction of the Second Temple, the Pharisees founded a rabbinic school
while the Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots disappeared from history.92 Kostenberger notes that
scholars have become increasingly aware that Second Temple Judaism had become theologically
diverse as their scholars developed various legalistic interpretations that became theologies.93
Animal sacrifice continued, with the convenience of sacrificial animals available for
purchase in the temple courts. Temple taxes could be paid only with silver shekels from Tyre in
Phoenicia due to their relative consistency in weight and quality. These, too, were available for
exchange by the money sellers in the temple court. This was the commercialization of the temple
that Jesus disrupted (Matt 21:12).94 Scripture and genealogical records were preserved. Jewish
scholars, including Jesus, read, studied, and expounded the Scripture (John 7:28). Extra-biblical
rabbinical scholarship had begun to flourish in the century or so before the birth of Jesus to
interpret the Law. This legalism added burdensome regulations not intended by God. This was
the legalism that Jesus addressed when confronted by Pharisees (Matt 12:1-5). Religious
training was an important function. Pro forma worship included sacrifice, ritual bathing, prayer,
communal dining, and observance of the holy days with pilgrims coming great distances, and
____________________
90 Ibid, Kostenberger, 100.
91 Pliny the Elder, Historica Naturalis, V.17, 29.
92 Ibid., Kostenberger, 103.
93 Ibid., Grant, 227.
94 Ibid, Kostenberger, 99.
13
swelling the population of Jerusalem during those periods.95 Pharisees and Sadducees came
together into governing bodies, established originally as the Council of Elders by returning priest
and builder Ezra.96 Alongside the Council of Elders was the Sanhedrin, a body of Pharisees and
Scribes who regulated education, and garnered increasing power in the theocracy that Judea had
become.97 The temple was still the cultural center of Judea, the focus of government and religion,
a hub for commerce, but it had ceased to function in the capacity that God had ordained through
Moses. The birth of the synagogue is an unrecorded event, but scholars believe that they existed
before the Second Temple was built, grew throughout the entire Second Temple Period, and
flourished after the temple was destroyed in AD 70.98
Synagogue Worship
Ancient synagogues, “the institutional matrixes in which two world religions were born,
have been discussed and debated by scholars of Early Judaism and Christianity since modern
historical research entered the world of academics around the sixteenth century,” according to
Anders Runesson, et al.99 The Judeans understood the Babylonian conquest and captivity to be
God’s punishment for their rebellion.100 A revival occurred that resulted in the permanent
allegiance to the worship of the monotheistic God of Abraham.101 As discussed above (Second
Temple Worship), religious fervor was not expressed at all times in all segments of the
population.
Although the birth of the synagogue is lost to history, many scholars believe that they
originated during the Babylonian revival.102 Prophetic OT Scripture seems to sanction the
____________________
95 Ibid., Grant, 218.
96 Ibid., Grant, 218
97 Ibid., Kostenberger, 68.
98 Ibid.
99 Anders Runesson, Donald D. Binder, and Birger Olsson, The Ancient Synagogue from its origins to 200 C.E.: A Source Book, (Boston: Brill, 2010), 1.
100 Ibid., Kostenberger, 68.
101 Ibid., 99.
102 Ibid.
14
institution as God-ordained, foretelling a need unsuspected in the time of the prophet Ezekiel:
“Thus saith the Lord GOD; Although I have cast them far off among the heathen, and although I
have scattered them among the countries, yet I will be to them as a little sanctuary in the
countries where they shall come” (Ezek 11:16b). Like the Jewish community as a whole, the
synagogue adapted in many ways, but did not discard the ancient theology. Levine concludes
that synagogues complemented temple worship, rather than competed with it, expanding access
for religious expression to Jews who lived away from Jerusalem.103 Synagogues were community
based, providing regular access to worship God and participate in the rituals of Judaism.102 In a
paradigm change, God came to the people instead of the people coming to God. Sacrifice was
forbidden outside of the temple. The synagogue was, until the destruction of the temple in AD
70, an alternative, not a replacement. Azriel Eisenberg concludes that, “it is clear that the
synagogue was never regarded as a competitor of the Temple, but rather an extension of it.”104
The distinct role of the Second Temple Synagogue is illustrated by the establishment of a
“synagogue” room within the temple.105 Known as the “Hall of Hewn Stones,” it was a
combination courtroom and liturgical center where priests recited Shema during sacrices.106 In
this accommodation, Levine sees a suggestion of cultural change driving the formation of the
synagogue over extended time as community activities moved from the city gate to more
purpose-focused facilities.107 The archeological find known as the Theodotus Inscription, from
first century AD Jerusalem, lists community activities that scholars conclude to be those of the
synagogue, that include reading the law, studying, maintaining guesthouses, and priestly
leadership,108 the latter affirmed by Philo.109 As the temple, it was the center of community life:
____________________
103 Lee I. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 37.
104 Ibid., Eisenberg, 22.
105 Ibid., 43.
106 Ibid.
107 Ibid.
108 Ibid., Levine, 24-25.
109 Philo, Hypothetica, 7.12-13.
15
within the confines of the synagogue the Jewish community seems to have not only worshipped
regularly, but also studied, held court, administered punishment, organized sacred meals,
collected charitable donations, housed the communal archives and library, and assembled for
political and social purposes.110 Additional functions included ritual bathing, a place of sanctuary
and manumission, and center for courts and societies.111 Supplementing the Second Temple, it
also filled the gap in its absence. “The Synagogue, one of the unique and innovative institutions
of antiquity, was central to Judaism and left indelible marks on Christianity and Islam as
well.”112 Along with the essential sense of community, many of these activities would be adapted
and adopted by the church.
Church Worship
As Jews based their religious experience and expression on God through Moses,
Christians found their authority and relationship with God and authority through Jesus: “As he is
the head of the body, the church: who is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead; that in all
things he might have the preeminence” (Col 1:18). Comparison must start with the recognition of
certain irreconcilable differences between Christianity and Judaism. Jesus declared Himself to be
the fulfilment of Old Testament prophecy as the long awaited Messiah (Matt 16: 13-17). He
established His church (Matt 16:17-18), not with the Jew who rejected him (John 1:11), but with
His elect, drawn from all nations (Rom 11:7-8). The resurrection of Jesus fundamentally changed
religious experience and expression from an expectation of the coming Messiah to a celebration
of the present Christ (Matt 28:9). Although rejected by his own, and moving on to the Gentile
world, He has not forsaken the Jews (John 1: 10-13).
The church developed as unremarkably as the synagogue had: both appear to have
____________________
110 Ibid., Levine, 37.
111 Donald L. Binder, Into the Temple Courts: The Place of the Synagogue in the Second Temple Period, (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1999), 389-449.
112 Ibid., Levine, 1.
16
encouraged no one to document those events, only their existence.113 “The teaching of the
Apostles was very simple. They testified to what they had seen and heard of Jesus, to His love,
his sufferings, His death and resurrection.”114 Their message became the message of their
converts.115 Initially, Christian Jews had continued to worship in the temple and synagogues,
seeking converts among their countrymen (Acts 9:20). As the sect grew, friendly acceptance
decreased and animosity, especially among the religious leaders increased (John 16:2). Paul and
others faced increasingly fierce resistance in some synagogues and the temple (see Acts 18-
19).116 A uniquely Christian institution was needed: the church was born (Acts 16:5). A sense of
community even greater than that of Judaism was a hallmark of the Christian fellowship (Acts
2:42). In fact, it was a precept of the new sect: “God is faithful, by whom ye were called unto the
fellowship of his Son Jesus Christ our Lord” (1 Cor 1:9). They were told to forebear “one
another in love; endeavoring to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace” (Eph 4:2b-3). A
notable departure from Judaism was the designation of Sunday as the day of worship (Acts
20:18). The church began in the homes of the early Christians.
“And on the day called Sunday all who live in cities or in the country gather together in one place, and the memoirs of the Apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits. Then when the reader has finished, the Ruler in a discourse instructs and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. . . . But we all hold this common gathering on Sunday, since it is the first day, on which God transforming darkness and matter made the Universe, and Jesus Christ our Savior on the same day rose from the dead.”117
Animal sacrifice was replaced by His atoning sacrifice on the cross (Heb 7:26-28). The
hereditary priesthood was replaced by a priesthood of believers (1 Pet 2:9). The very temple was
____________________
113 Ibid., Levine, 4.
114 Ibid., Bendel, 11.
115 Ibid., Bendel, 11.
116 Ibid., 122.
117 Justyn Martyr, First Apology, 67.
17
replaced by His body, and the festivals with His Person (John 2:18-22).
“Every day they assembled to hear the Word preached and unite in prayer. But especially on “the Lord’s day,” the day of the resurrection, (our Sunday), did they assemble with one accord, celebrating the holy Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper and strengthening each other in faith.” 118
The Christians traded ritual for love, reflecting the love of God (Matt 22:37) in their love for others (Matt 5:43-44).
The Greek word koinonia is often translated “fellowship.” It is more accurate to render it by “sharing.” The first believers had all things in common. They shared, first of all, in spiritual blessings. They participated together in the Holy Spirit, and soon they would participate in the Kingdom of God.119
Another significant difference was the universal outreach of Christians (Acts 14:1). Commanded
by Jesus to spread the Gospel, the Good News, throughout the world (Mark 16:15), His followers
complied, establishing new churches wherever they went (Acts 16:15). Detractors soon claimed
that the Christians were “These that have turned the world upside down (Acts 17:6b). With a
church bureaucracy still in its infancy, the first leaders were selected by their congregations
(Acts 14:23), with guidelines established by the Apostles (1 Tim 3), whether in their presence, or
in their absence, by letters which would be circulated among the churches, and would become
accepted as the canon of the NT.120
Yet, with all the fundamental differences, the similarities are striking, for both Judaism
and Christianity look to very similar ends: a relationship with God leading to a moral and
productive life.121 Scripture reading was important, both from the Old Testament canon, and
from the emerging New Testament. Congregational participation, as in the synagogue, was
encouraged and perhaps expanded to include singing or reciting favorite psalms (Eph 5:19-20),
doctrinal discussion, exhortation, and revelation (Acts14:27), interpretation of the growing body
____________________
118 Josephus, Antiquities, 14, 214-16.
119 Clarence Tucker Craig, The Beginning of Christianity, (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1943), 141.
120 Ibid., 154.
121 Ibid., 46.
18
of literature, congregational participation (1 Cor 14:26), and “the foolishness of preaching” (1
Cor 1:21). Other commonalities included communal meals, collecting funds for benevolent
activities, housing of visitors, discipline (Matt 18:17a), and support for each other (Heb 10:24).
The first century church was a certainly not homogeneous in either doctrine or
practice,122 but it was in belief in their Savior, love and support for their own, and outreach to the
unsaved, first the Jew, then the Gentile. Paul and the other Apostles wrestled with the tough
problems, sometimes coming up with tough answers, but always building on the teachings of
Jesus to develop and maintain a “genuinely spiritual religion.”123
Conclusion
The God of Creation knew before he formed man from the dust of the earth that he
would fail. The great freedom of choice given the creature was, and is, too much for him. In His
infinite wisdom, He still created man. He gave the law to Moses to begin training His Chosen
People to meet His expectations. Again, knowing their proclivity to fail, He provided a place, not
only to meet with Him and worship Him, but also a dedicated priesthood to instruct and
intercede on their behalf, and a means of atonement through blood sacrifice, but only as a
shadow of the Perfect Sacrifice to come.
He established the tabernacle and the temple as that
meeting place between Himself and man. They were the centers of Jewish life, incorporating
religious, commercial, and legal activities in an institution designed to focus their lives on the
One God. Man turned them, along with his relationship with YHWH, a name too sacred to be
spoken, but not too sacred be abused, into a political and commercial quagmire. In His time He
brought the synagogue into being, quietly and without fanfare. It was a radical departure from
the temple that He had established, a singularity of contact with God and renewal for man,
giving improved accessibility and individual participation. In the fulness of time—His time—
____________________
122 Ibid., Craig,178.
123 Ibid.
19
He brought His Son, Jesus, the Christ, the Messiah, into the world to live and teach among His
world, sinful because of the abuse of man’s free will, offering salvation and fellowship again
with the Creator. The people of the church were no more perfect than those of the temple: The
first book of the NT canon quotes Jesus on this issue (Matt 18:15-17).124 The church was to
reach out to a sinful world while protecting the sanctity of its own ranks.125
____________________
124 Ibid., Bendel, 12.
125 Ibid.
20
Bibliography
Bendel, A. Church History. Reading, PA, Pilgar Book Store, 1882, 11-12, 122.
Binder, Donald D. Into the Temple Courts: The Place of the Synagogues in the Second Temple Period. Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 1999, 89-449.
Craig, Clarence Tucker. The Beginning of Christianity. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1943, 46, 141-178.
Eisenberg, Azriel. The Synagogue Through the Ages. NY: Bloch Publishing Co., 1974, 22-26, 34-43.
Grant, Michael. History of Ancient Israel. NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1984, 120-121, 139-141, 199-240.
Kostenberger, Andreas J., Kellum, L. Scott, and Quarels, Charles L. The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament. Nashville: B. and H. Academic Publishers, 2009, 64-103.
Levine, Lee I. The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years. Newhaven, CN: Yale University Press, 2000, 1-4, 24-25, 37.
Runesson, Anders, Donald D. Binder, and Birger Olsson. The Ancient Synagogue From its Origins to 200 C.E: A Source Book. Boston: Brill, 2010, 1.

Ruth: An Exegetical Review

LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
Ruth: An Exegetical Review
Submitted to Dr. Robert Mack
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of
OBST 515-D 03
Fall 2017
Old Testament Orientation I
by
Robert Beanblossom
14 December 2017
ii
Contents
Introduction ………………………………………..…………………………………………….1
Historical Background …………………………………………………………………..…..…1
Prevailing Conditions …………………………………………………………………………..1
Main Characters …………………………………………………………………………..……2
Major Argument …………………………………………………………………………………3
Purpose ………………………………………………………………………………….……….3
Key Verse …………………………………………………………………………………….…..3
Major Themes ……………………………………………………………..…….………………4
Ruth: An Exegesis ……………………..…………………………………………..……..……..6
Chapter 1:1-18 ……………………………………………………………………..……..……..6
Chapter 1:1-5 ……………………………………………………………..………..……..6
Chapter 1:6-14 ………………………………………………………….….……………..7
Chapter 1:15-18 ……………………………………………………….….……………….9
Chapter 1:19—2:22 …………………………………………………………..….…..…………10
Chapter 1:19-21 ………………………………………………………..………………….10
Chapter 1:22 …………………………………………………………..……….……..….11
Chapter 2:1-7 ………………………………………………………….………..………..11
Chapter 2:8-13 ………………………………………………………….…….……….…12
Chapter 2:14-16 ……………………………………………………….…….………..….13
Chapter 2:17-23 ………………………………………………………….……………….14
Chapter 3:1-18 ………………………………………………………………………………….15
Chapter 3:1-5 …………………………………………………………………………….15
Chapter 3: 6-13 …………………………………………………………………………..17
Chapter 3:14-18 ………………………………………………………………………….20
Chapter 4:1-22 ………………………………………………………………………………….21
Chapter 4:1-6 …………………………………………………………………………….21
Chapter 4:7-12 ………………………………………………………………….………..23
Chapter 4:13-17 ………………………………………………………….………………24
iii
Chapter 4:18-22 …………………………………………………….……………………26
Applications …………………………………………………………………………………….27
Hesed: Is it a NT Concept? ………………………………………………………………28
Applying the Hesed of Ruth Today ..…………………….………………………………29
Bibliography ……………………………………….………………………….…………..……..36
1
Introduction
Historical Background
The era following Moses and Joshua, and preceding King Saul, is known as the “days when the judges ruled” in Israel (Ruth 1:1a).1 It is a loose confederation of rebellious tribes who claim to follow the One God Elohiym YHWH, but often lose sight of Him amid the influence of the indigenous peoples that they live among who worship gods of wood, stone, and metals. Moses had established a socio-political structure in the Wilderness, organizing Israel along tribal lines (cf. Num 2) that would prove as divisive as it was expedient. Joshua, who succeeded him, was not Moses, and those who followed were not Joshua. Without effective leadership the tribes failed their God-mandated effort to exterminate or drive out the sinful inhabitants from the land (cf. Judges 1). YHWH is a jealous God. His judgements follow their sin. Israel repents and He forgives. The cycle repeats. A series of judges are appointed as war lords and civil administrators with mixed results. Ruth is set within this period (1:1) when “there was no king in Israel: every man did that which was right in his own eyes (Judges 17:6; 18:1; 21:25). The book is seen by some as designed to “fill the gap between the Book of Judges and the Book of Samuel.”2 Ruth bridges that gap but also stands alone as an inspiring narrative showing the unfailing lovingkindness of God, even when it is unseen.
Prevailing Conditions
There is a famine in Bethlehem, the “Land of Bread” (1:1b).3 Israel has no Joseph to
____________________
1 All Scripture is from the King James Version of the Bible unless otherwise noted.
2 Irmtraud Fischer, “The Book of Ruth as Exegetical Literature,” European Judaism, 40 no. 2 (Winter 2007), 141.
3 Danna Nolan Fewell, “Space for Moral Agency in the Book of Ruth,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 40.1 (2015), 82.
2
provide relief (Gen 41:39-49). Elimelech, an Ephrathite of Bethelem-judah, gathers his family and sets out eastward around the Salt Sea to Moab, beyond the famine (1:2). There he dies, leaving his wife Naomi with two sons, who also die. She returns home after the famine, a bitter widow, accompanied by one widowed daughter-in-law Ruth, seeking comfort in the old familiar scene (1:6, 19). Naomi has land as Elimelech’s heiress, but she is land poor: she has no resources to reap the benefits of that land (4:3). Here the story proper begins.
Main Characters
Three characters dominate the narrative. Naomi (pleasant) is threaded throughout the text as wife (1:1-2), widow (1:3), mother-in-law (1:4, 6), and nurse (4:16); following her husband to Moab (1:1b-3); standing by her sons as they mature and marry foreign wives (1:4); pragmatically taking the reins when all appears lost; and guiding Ruth (and herself) into prosperity by manipulating Ruth and her near kinsman Boaz through Ruth (1-4). In distress over the loss of her men, destitute economically and spiritually, she tells her old friends in Bethlehem to call her Mara (bitter). She is down, but not out: a familiar situation in her generation.
Ruth (friend), the Moabitess, is the focal point. She gives allegiance to Naomi and YHWH (1:16-17); receives the praise of all Bethlehem: for her gracious treatment of her mother-in-law; for providing food for the table (1:11, 15); and for her upright behavior with Boaz, her husband-to-be (2:10). Through it all there is an undercurrent of wily self-preservation (2:5-9).
Boaz (meaning and root are unknown today [1162]), is the wealthy near-kinsman who is not quite near enough; a model of virtue (2:1); gracious to servants and strangers alike (2:4,8); well versed in law and highly effective in court (4:1:12); who is in the lineage of David (4:18-19). Daniel I. Block suggests that: “Boaz spoke with the grace and generosity. . . in him biblical
3
hesed (lovingkindness [2617])4 had become flesh and dwelt among humankind.”5
The Covenant God of Israel is the underlying, often unseen, but controlling primary character who exhibits and encourages hesed as exemplified in Boaz’ speech to Ruth: “The Lord recompense thy work, and a full reward be given thee of the LORD God of Israel, under whose wings thou are come to trust” (Ruth 2:12). He is the God of the individual, not just the nation.
Major Argument
The consummate will of YHWH is the veridical truth of the book as it is of the entire Bible. It advances in spite of man’s obedience or disobedience. Here, His covenantal hesed permeates His relationship with three diverse individuals who, in turn, reflect that hesed in their own relationships. Seen or unseen it is an extension of His being, omnipresent and prevailing.
Purpose
The purpose of Ruth is to show the will of God at work as an expression of His lovingkindness in the lives of three people of widely different backgrounds: Boaz, the rich farmer; Naomi, the aging hometown widow; and Ruth, the young foreigner, also a widow (1-4). Meeting life as it comes they unknowingly fulfill the will of God, forging a link in the chain of the genealogy of David and Jesus, and a link to Judah and Bethlehem (Micah 5:2; (Matt 1:5).
Key Verse
And Ruth said, entreat me not to leave thee, or to return from following after thee: for whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I will lodge: thy people shall be my people, and thy God shall be my God” (1:16).
____________________
4 James Strong, The New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1996). All Hebrew word translations and definitions are from Strong’s with standard reference numbers shown in brackets.
5 Daniel I. Block, Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament: Ruth (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2015), 129.
4
YHWH’s Mosaic covenant is relational and conditional. His blessings are contingent upon obedience, a suzerain covenant given and administered by God to a subservient people. It is explicit in its expectations and includes rewards and punishments. This generation is familiar with the stories of the patriarchs and the Wilderness. In this time of the judges they have experienced the judgement of God for their failures and undeserved hesed when they cry out for relief. Hesed is conditionally reserved for members of the covenant as a voluntary expression of love, devotion, loyalty, and more. It is action, not a warm-fuzzy feeling, but a practical demonstration. It is reciprocal. It is the often unrecognized backbone of Gods relationship with every man, seen throughout His Word as He tempers wrath and punishment with lovingkindness, fulfilling His promise to preserve this wayward people. Ruth is the exception to the notion that hesed is functional only within the closed covenantal group. In its full meaning, she receives the practical lovingkindness of those with whom she interacts, in turn exemplifying God’s hesed toward His people: her pledge to never leave Naomi while always embracing Naomi’s God (1:16) is demonstrated practically throughout the narrative. The Judges Generation would identify with the trials and successes of these characters as they embody God’s ideal of hesed among His people.
Major Themes
Hesed is the overarching theme of Ruth that is unseen by the actors.6 It is recognized in retrospect below the surface as YHWH preserves and prospers them. Original readers would be comfortable with the extension of the margins of covenantal hesed to Ruth even as they
____________________
6 For example: Naomi accepts Ruth into her family (1:19); Ruth follows Naomi’s leadership in love and devotion (1:16-17); Boaz allows Ruth to glean with perks (2:8-16); Ruth’s relationship with Boaz (4:13); and always, by God to each of them (4:11-13).
5
would the legal concantation of the levirate marriage and near kinsman laws.7
Integral with hesed in Ruth is ga’al (to redeem [1350]). Seen as hesed shel emet (a spirit of kindness, charity, and fidelity) among Naomi, Ruth, and Boaz in the first three chapters, it is expressed in Chapter 4 as ge’ulah (redemption [1353]), the frame upon which hesed permeates the action.8 Boaz’ bold integration of the law of levirate marriage (Deut 25:5-10) and land redemption (Lev 25:25-28) into one interlocked transaction, unchallenged in court, results in the ge’ulah of Naomi and her land; and of Ruth as wife of Boaz and as beneficiary of both. This culminating act brings Naomi and Ruth into economic security, elevates their social status (4:5, 9-10) and brings the child Obed and his Moabitess mother into David’s lineage (4:18-22). Naomi, by welcoming Ruth into her Bethlehem household (1:18-19, 22), exhibits hesed by brokering ge’ulah through Boaz, bringing reciprocal hesed to her (4:14-15) as an unexpected but eternal expression that fulfills YHWH’s will (4:17-22).
The reader realizes that hesed is the expression of God’s love, but God’s will is the force majeure, out of sight except in retrospect, but seen from that perspective as guiding and preserving all as fits His purpose. Ruth shows that death (1:3, 5), catastrophes (1:1), and human failure (4:1-6) seem to dominate the situation, yet Messiah will come (Gen 49:10). “By the end of the Ruth narrative, the reader is convinced of YHWH’s power and faithfulness to His covenant promises.”9
____________________
7 Joshua Berman, “Ancient Hermeneutics and the Legal Structure of the Book of Ruth,” Zeitschrifft fur die attestamentliche Wissenchaft, 119 no. 1 (2007), 23.
8 Abraham D. Cohen, “The Eschatological Meaning of the Book of Ruth: ‘Blessed be God: Asher Lo Hisbit Lak Go’El’” Jewish Bible Quarterly (1 July 2012), 167.
9 Reg Grant, “Literary Structure in the Book of Ruth.” Bibliotheca Sacra, 148 no. 592 (October-December 1991), 427.
6
Ruth: An Exegesis
Chapter 1:1-18
The famine drives Elimelech and family to Moab. Scripture does not indicate that any others from the area take this same approach. This action does not seem to be blessed by God, although there is no specific statement to that effect, but the death of Elimelech and his sons suggest divine intervention. Neither is there any suggestion that Elimelech worships YHWH in Moab. While there, he dies, his sons take Moabitess wives and, in turn, they die. One young widow, Orpha, remains in Moab, but the other, Ruth, accompanies a bitter and defeated Naomi home to Bethlehem.
Chapter 1:1-5
1 Now it came to pass in the days when the judges ruled, that there was a famine in the land. And a certain man of Beth-lehem-judah went to sojourn in the country of Moab, he, and his wife, and his two sons. 2 And the name of the man was Elimelech, and the name of his wife Naomi, and the name of his two sons Mahlon and Chilion, Ephrathites of Beth-lehem-judah. And they came into the country of Moab, and continued there. 3 And Elimelech Naomi’s husband died; and she was left, and her two sons. 4 And they took them wives of the women of Moab; the name of the one was Orpah, and the name of the other Ruth: and they dwelled there about ten years. 5 And Mahlon and Chilion died also both of them; and the woman was left of her two sons and her husband.
Elimelech (God of the king [458]), his wife Naomi (pleasant [5281]), and their sons, Mahlon (sickly [4248]) and Chilion (from killayown [3615], pining, destructive [3630]), cross the Jordan River north of the Salt Sea into the land of Moab (1:1-3). The famine is devastating. In the unsettled days of the judges there was no Joseph to rescue the people (cf. Gen 41-47). Elimelech dies with no fanfare or cause given (1:3). Apparently deciding to remain in Moab, his sons take wives of the Moabites: Orpha (from ‘oreph [6203], nape of the neck [6204]) and Ruth (friend [7327]) (1:4).
Moab, the son of Lot and his incestuous relationship with his daughter, is the progenitor of these people (cf. Gen 19:36-38). Lot exemplified OT men who were less than responsive to
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YHWH’s will.10 Moab has been a thorn in the flesh since Moses led the Exodus and New Generations in the wilderness through Moabite territory (cf. Num 26:35). The Law was given in Moab (Num 36:13) and Moses was buried there (Deut 34:4-6). Moses wrote that it was off-limits since God had given it to Lot’s children (Deut 2:9) yet he later gave it to the tribes who petitioned to remain on the east bank (Joshua 13:31-33). Hebrews were forbidden marry Moabites. Hebrew migrants in Moab would seem to be problematical, yet Naomi and her sons apparently live peaceful and comfortable lives there. Family tragedy strikes again ten years later: Scripture simply relates that “Mahlon and Chilion died also” as Naomi “was left of her two sons and her husband” (1:5). Some commentators ascribe all three deaths to failure to trust YHWH in Bethlehem, compounded by taking prohibited wives.11 This is possible but not attested. These deaths leave the widows destitute. Readers would be those who had “toughed-out” the famine in Bethlehem, undermining to some extent any underdog empathy engendered by the “down and out” theme.
Chapter 1:6-14
6 Then she arose with her daughters in law, that she might return from the country of Moab: for she had heard in the country of Moab how that the LORD had visited his people in giving them bread. 7 Wherefore she went forth out of the place where she was, and her two daughters in law with her; and they went on the way to return unto the land of Judah. 8 And Naomi said unto her two daughters in law, Go, return each to her mother’s house: the LORD deal kindly with you, as ye have dealt with the dead, and with
me. 9 The LORD grant you that ye may find rest, each of you in the house of her husband. Then she kissed them; and they lifted up their voice, and wept.10 And they said unto her, Surely we will return with thee unto thy people. 11 And Naomi said, Turn again, my daughters: why will ye go with me? are there yet any more sons in my womb, that they may be your husbands? 12 Turn again, my daughters, go your way; for I am too old to have an husband. If I should say, I have hope, if I should have an husband also to night, and should also bear sons; 13 would ye tarry for them till they were grown? would ye stay for them from having husbands? nay, my daughters; for it grieveth me much for your sakes that the hand of the LORD is gone out against me. 14 And they lifted up their voice, and wept again: and Orpah kissed her mother in law; but Ruth clave unto her.
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10 Eugene H. Merrill, “The Book of Ruth: Narration and Shared Themes,” Bibliotheca Sacra, 142 no. 566 (Apr-Jun 1985), 137-138.
11 Berman, 22.
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Naomi, until now a background figure, becomes the decision maker. She leaves Moab and returns to Bethlehem having heard that the famine was over (1:6). Both daughters-in-law start the trip, but Naomi stops, and in a tearful scene, encourages them to go home and get new husbands; offering encouragement and bestowing her blessing upon them: “the LORD deal kindly (hesed) with you . . .” (cf. 1:8-9) which she enigmatically undermines the with her own self-pity: “the Lord is gone out against me” (1:13). Phyllis Trible observes that Naomi, the pragmatic rationalist, does not recall God’s past hesed to her family but does recall the hesed of her daughters-in-law.12 This suggests Naomi’s ambivalent concept of YHWH according to Amelia Devin Freedman.13 Her god is a cultural figure, someone to blame for failure, rather than a Person with whom she can have a relationship, her blessing but ritual.
Naomi employs repetitive language to “underscore her point of view,”14 to encourage her protégés to leave her and return to their homeland.15 Tearfully, both young widows plead to remain with Naomi. They have been in her household for ten years. Finally agreeing, Orpha “kissed her mother in law” goodbye and goes home (1:9b-14a). Naomi’s rhetorical plea that her age and time was prohibitive to her producing new husbands for the widows, even if she had a new husband (1:11b-13), is designed to “impress upon Ruth and Orpha that for them, staying with Naomi would mean abandoning all hopes of remarrying and because she is too old to bear
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12 Phyllis Trible, God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality, Overtures to Biblical Theology, (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978), 166-199.
13 Amelia Devin Freedman, “Naomi’s Mission: A Commentary on the Book of Ruth,” Proceedings (Grand Rapids) 23 (2003), 29.
14 Matthew Michael, “The Art of Persuasion and the Book of Ruth: Literary Devices in the Persuasive Speeches of Ruth 1:6-18,” Hebrew Studies (1 January 2015), 152.
15 Ibid. (“Go, return” 1:8b; “Turn again” 1:12a); and “go your way” 1:12b).
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more sons,”16 giving the reader a hint of redemption to come through the Levirate law (Deut 25:5- 10) that Boaz would soon concatenate with the Redeemer law (Lev 25:25-28). As the dissenting voice, Ruth “clave (dabaq, cleave to, follow hard, overtake [1692]) unto her” (1:14b).
Chapter 1:15-18
15 And she said, Behold, thy sister in law is gone back unto her people, and unto her gods: return thou after thy sister in law. 16 And Ruth said, Intreat me not to leave thee, or to return from following after thee: for whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I will lodge: thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God: 17 where thou diest, will I die, and there will I be buried: the LORD do so to me, and more also, if ought but death part thee and me. 18 When she saw that she was stedfastly minded to go with her, then she left speaking unto her.
Ruth refuses Naomi’s arguments and the example of her sister in law, imploring Naomi to stop pleading with her (1:15-16). Another insight into Naomi’s relationship with YHWH is seen as she encourages Ruth not only to return to her country, but to her former “gods” (‘elohiym, here used as gods in the ordinary sense rather than as YHWH [430]). This suggests that the family had not been worshipers of the true God in Moab; they were Hebrews by blood but not in spirit. It mirrors the foundering of the nation throughout the time of the Judges, as YHWH was rejected, local idols were adopted or a form of agnosticism was practiced such as we see in Israel today: a Chosen People rejecting the very God who chose them. Trible suggests that Ruth’s soliloquy affirms her devotion to Naomi, her people and, with more fervor than we see in Naomi, to YHWH: all unto death (1:16-17). “Steadfastly minded” (‘amats, physically and mentally determined, even obstinate [553]), Ruth follows Naomi, who, giving in, (“chadal, forsook [2308]; dabar, answer [1696]):” she “forsook answering,” that is, she gave up, gave in, and the pair went on their way, Bethlehem bound.
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16 Michael, 153.
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Chapter 1:19—2-22
Naomi and Ruth arrive in Bethlehem during barley harvest and are met by the townspeople. Naomi is still distraught at her losses and calls herself Mara’ (bitter [4755]). She tells Ruth of a near kinsmen and sends her to gather grain dropped by the workers (laqat, glean, gather [3950]) wherever she can find a friendly field, a practice approved even for “strangers” in the land (Lev 19:10b).
Chapter 1:19-21
19 So they two went until they came to Bethlehem. And it came to pass, when they were come to Bethlehem, that all the city was moved about them, and they said, Is this Naomi? 20 And she said unto them, Call me not Naomi, call me Mara: for the Almighty hath dealt very bitterly with me. 21 I went out full, and the LORD hath brought me home again empty: why then call ye me Naomi, seeing the LORD hath testified against me, and the Almighty hath afflicted me?
Naomi and Ruth are greeted by Naomi’s old friends (1:20). She has not been forgotten. Naomi complains that she is no longer pleasant, but is now Mara’ “since the Almighty (Shadday [7706])17 hath dealt very bitterly (marar [4843]) with me” (1:20). Naomi is convinced, coming home with nothing after years of comfort and plenty, that the “YHWH hath testified against me . . . and afflicted me (1:21). She fails to see His hesed in their safe trip, food for the gleaning in the fields, a place to live, and friends who welcome her.
Chapter 1:22
22 So Naomi returned, and Ruth the Moabitess, her daughter in law, with her, which returned out of the country of Moab: and they came to Bethlehem in the beginning of barley harvest.
While Naomi bewails her bad treatment by God, His hesed is evident to readers. The pair
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17 Shadday is used 41 times in the OT, translated “Almighty,” and seven times as El Shadday (God Almighty). It is first used in Gen 17:1 as God introduces Himself to Abraham, and later in Gen 28:3 in Isaac’s blessing of Jacob as he charged his son not to take a wife from among the foreigners, portending a judgement upon Naomi’s husband and sons?
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arrives in Bethlehem in the dry Spring season when temperatures average in the 60s F. The barley harvest has started. Barley in this area is a bit like winter wheat in the Mid-South of the United States that is planted in the fall and harvested in the spring as attested by the Gezer Calendar,18 and by Reg Grant, who states that the “arrival of Naomi and Ruth . . . (at) the barley harvest in April” has significance beyond the hope that Spring brings of fruitful lands, lives and wombs, to include the harvest feasts that would have resonated with the original readers. These include Passover (Israel’s need of a redeemer), Unleavened Bread (Israel’s separation from the old life in Egypt), and Firstfruits (with the wave offering acknowledging the need of divine provision) (Lev 23:4-14).19
Chapter 2:1-7
1 And Naomi had a kinsman of her husband’s, a mighty man of wealth, of the family of Elimelech; and his name was Boaz. 2 And Ruth the Moabitess said unto Naomi, Let me now go to the field, and glean ears of corn after him in whose sight I shall find grace. And she said unto her, Go, my daughter. 3 And she went, and came, and gleaned in the field after the reapers: and her hap was to light on a part of the field belonging unto Boaz, who was of the kindred of Elimelech.4 And, behold, Boaz came from Beth-lehem, and said unto the reapers, The LORD be with you. And they answered him, The LORD bless thee. 5 Then said Boaz unto his servant that was set over the reapers, Whose damsel is this? 6 And the servant that was set over the reapers answered and said, It is the Moabitish damsel that came back with Naomi out of the country of Moab:7 and she said, I pray you, let me glean and gather after the reapers among the sheaves: so she came, and hath continued even from the morning until now, that she tarried a little in the house.
Naomi tells Ruth of a rich kinsman named Boaz, a close relative of her deceased husband
(2:1): his potential role as kinsman redeemer is left unsaid, but understood by the audience, a “hook” to encourage the reader to sit up and take notice. Ruth has learned about the custom of gleaning, perhaps as they walked by grain fields under harvest on the way up to Jerusalem. Ruth volunteers to glean in whatever field she can find (2:2). Naomi now owns Elimelech’s land but
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18 R. A. Stewart Maclister, The Excavation of Gezer, Vol. 2 (London: John Murray, 1912), 24-28.
19 Grant, 428-429.
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has no resources for seed or workers.20 No mention is made of living accommodations, but the story line resting upon Naomi’s property suggests that they are living on the inherited land in an existing house. Ruth now becomes the primary actor as she says, “let me now go . . .” (2:2b) followed by her determined actions to secure food (and meet the near kinsman?) in 2:2-3 as the law allowed, even for a foreigner (Lev 19:34).21
Opportunely, Ruth selects Boaz’ field (“her hap” miqreh, an accident, a matter of good fortune [4745]) (2:3), the unseen hesed of a righteous God at work. Boaz comes down from Jerusalem to check on his harvest (2:4a). Greeting his workers, he notices Ruth and inquires about her (2:5). His steward, already aware of her from their conversation when she had requested permission to glean the field,21 tells Boaz that she is the Moabitish companion of Naomi, recently returned from Moab (2:6), perhaps as a friendly reminder that Moabite women are off limits as wives. He reports that she has been working diligently (2:6-7). The Judges Generation would understand this hard work as a condition of survival.
Chapter 2:8-13
8 Then said Boaz unto Ruth, Hearest thou not, my daughter? Go not to glean in another field, neither go from hence, but abide here fast by my maidens: 9 let thine eyes be on the field that they do reap, and go thou after them: have I not charged the young men that they shall not touch thee? and when thou art athirst, go unto the vessels, and drink of that which the young men have drawn. 10 Then she fell on her face, and bowed herself to the ground, and said unto him, Why have I found grace in thine eyes, that thou shouldest take knowledge of me, seeing I am a stranger? 11 And Boaz answered and said unto her, It hath fully been shewed me, all that thou hast done unto thy mother in law since the death of thine husband: and how thou hast left thy father and thy mother, and the land of thy nativity, and art come unto a people which thou knewest not heretofore. 12 The LORD recompense thy work, and a full reward be given thee of the LORD God of Israel, under whose wings thou art come to trust. 13 Then she said, Let me find favour in thy sight, my lord; for that thou hast comforted me, and for that thou hast spoken friendly unto thine handmaid, though I be not like unto one of thine handmaidens.
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20 Fewell, 92.
21 Block, 116-117. Ruth becomes a woman of action as she takes the lead in the narrative in 2:2-3: “Ruth . . . said” (2a); “she went” (3a); “she came” (3b); and “she gleaned” (3c).
22 Ibid., 127.
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Boaz meets Ruth, perhaps calling her in from the field, urging her to laqat only in his field, staying close to his female workers as instructors (2:8-9). He assures her that she will not be bothered by his (or any other) young men (2:9b). He invites her to drink the water that his workers have drawn for their own use (2:9c). The gleaner is becoming the laqat, being “gathered” by her host.
Overwhelmed by the unwarranted hesed of this rich farmer, she asks, “Why?” (2:10). Boaz admits that Naomi and Ruth have already “fully” come to his attention (2:11). His practical hesed is a gracious act of intervention, apparently with no expectation at that time of reciprocal benefits from the young widow.23 Blessing her, he says, “The LORD recompense thy work, and a full reward be given thee of the LORD God of Israel, under whose wings thou art come to trust. YHWH’s hesed is an undercurrent working through a righteous man. Ruth responds graciously, acknowledging her precarious position among the Hebrews as an outsider, always a Moabite. The writer allows Boaz to effectively uses persuasion to influence Ruth to remain in his sights.24 Readers might have considered the possibility that the generous bachelor farmer might have more than a passing interest in this young widow.
Chapter 2:14-16
14 And Boaz said unto her, At mealtime come thou hither, and eat of the bread, and dip thy morsel in the vinegar. And she sat beside the reapers: and he reached her parched corn, and she did eat, and was sufficed, and left. even among the sheaves, and reproach her not: 16 and let fall also some of the handfuls of purpose for her, and leave them, that she may glean them, and rebuke her not. 15 And when she was risen up to glean, Boaz commanded his young men, saying, Let her glean
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23 Block, 50.
24 Michael, 159. These include promise (2:9a); security (9b); exaggeration (11); prayers/wishes (12a); figurative speech (12b); and food (9c, 14).
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Ruth avails herself of lunchroom privileges normally reserved for the paid workers (2:14) as Boaz broadens her field privileges beyond the norm and warns his male workers to give her the freedom of the field and to even “salt” it with “dropped” grain for her to laqat (2:15-16). The hesed of God working through Boaz, is expanding exponentially.
Chapter 2:17-23
17 So she gleaned in the field until even, and beat out that she had gleaned: and it was about an ephah of barley.18 And she took it up, and went into the city: and her mother in law saw what she had gleaned: and she brought forth, and gave to her that she had reserved after she was sufficed. 19 And her mother in law said unto her, Where hast thou gleaned to day? and where wroughtest thou? blessed be he that did take knowledge of thee. And she shewed her mother in law with whom she had wrought, and said, The man’s name with whom I wrought to day is Boaz. 20 And Naomi said unto her daughter in law, Blessed be he of
the LORD, who hath not left off his kindness to the living and to the dead. And Naomi said unto her, The man is near of kin unto us, one of our next kinsmen. 21 And Ruth the Moabitess said, He said unto me also, Thou shalt keep fast by my young men, until they have ended all my harvest. 22 And Naomi said unto Ruth her daughter in law, It is good, my daughter, that thou go out with his maidens, that they meet thee not in any other field. 23 So she kept fast by the maidens of Boaz to glean unto the end of barley harvest and of wheat harvest; and dwelt with her mother in law.
Ruth does not take undue advantage of Boaz’ generosity, but works all day, gathering and preparing about an “’eyphah (ephah: a measure of grain [374])25 of barley . . . . after she was sufficed” (2:17-18b). Ruth shares her experiences with Boaz and his workers with Naomi (2:19). Naomi senses that her near kinsman has more than interest in land (2:20).
Naomi is regaining her “pleasant” disposition as her fortune seems about to improve. She again reminds us that Ruth is “the Moabitess,” the outsider who is receiving the rich relative’s hesed (2:21). Seeing her plan coming together, Naomi encourages Ruth to stay close to Boaz’ “maidens, that they meet thee not in any other field” (2:23). Ruth, as an obedient daughter-in- law, or savvy co-conspirator, agrees and spends her time with the young women through the barley and the wheat harvests (2:23). Michael interprets the scene as Naomi warning Ruth to stay
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25 Slightly over a bushel according to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, or about 60 lbs. of grain.
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with Boaz’ harvest crew to protect her against “rape or other physical harm.”26 Naomi’s plan is developing around a cancantation of the levirate marriage law (Deut 25:5-10) leveraged by the laws of the redeemer (Deut 25:25-28). If Boaz would agree (and help) the nearest-kinsman could be discouraged and eliminated by a creative adaption of the laws that would be unfavorable to him. Ruth might become a substitute for the kinsman’s wife. Concatenation was not unknown in the ancient mid-East and shows the practical mindset of the day, not a disregard, of the law.27
Chapter 3:1-18
Naomi continues to plot to secure Boaz, who may be her brother-in-law (4:3), as her son-in-law. She has Ruth prepare to meet a serious suitor and sends her out under cover of darkness to the threshing floor where Boaz will spend the night after an evening celebrating the successful harvest. She is to remain unnoticed as she observes where Boaz lies down and, when all are asleep, stealthily enter and lie down at his feet. He awakens at midnight, startled. Ruth calms him, identifies him as her near kinsman, and proposes. Aboveboard in his actions, they spend the night together, but he nevertheless advises her to leave quietly before daybreak so that
no one will know she spent the night with him: this as he “spreads his skirt” over her. “Sleeping” on the situation, he finalizes Naomi’s plan and tells Ruth that he will make arrangements in the
morning to purchase the land and marry her: if he can eliminate a nearer-kinsman.
Chapter 3:1-5
1Then Naomi her mother in law said unto her, My daughter, shall I not seek rest for thee, that it may be well with thee? 2 And now is not Boaz of our kindred, with whose maidens thou wast? Behold, he winnoweth barley to night in the threshingfloor. 3 Wash thyself therefore, and anoint thee, and put thy raiment upon thee, and get thee down to the floor: but make not thyself known unto the man, until he shall have done eating and drinking. 4 And it shall be, when he lieth down, that thou shalt mark the place where
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26 Berman, 22.
27 Ibid.
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he shall lie, and thou shalt go in, and uncover his feet, and lay thee down; and he will tell thee what thou shalt do. 5 And she said unto her, All that thou sayest unto me I will do.
Naomi continues her plot to secure Boaz as her son-in-law, Ruth’s husband, and improve their social and economic status (3:1-2). We have no indication that she has ever met him, even before the family left for Moab, but she certainly knows of him and his wealth, and of his reputation of being an upright man: a highly eligible bachelor. No questions are raised about his marital status. Scripture is silent regarding any previous marriage. It simply is not germane from the author’s perspective. From Ruth, Naomi knows that the winnowing will end in a harvest party tonight at the threshing floor. D. C. Hopkins describes the threshing floors as public places, central to several fields or even to several communities,28 similar, perhaps to community grain elevators and cotton gins in America’s agricultural setting. Matthews suggests that crops were also bought and sold on the threshing floor.29 Working the fields is a hot and sweaty job as personal experience attests. Winnowing is normally conducted on hilltops where the wind will
blow the chaff away, providing a bit of cooling breeze offset by an increase in fine dust that coats the body. It is a man’s time: the maidens have gone home.30 Hot and sweaty, dusty bodies streaked by running sweat, the men relax at nightfall. When “done with eating and drinking” (3:3b) they lay on the ground and slept it off. This may help explain the ease with which Ruth enters the floor without being noticed.
Following Naomi’s instructions (3:5), Ruth bathes, perfumes herself, and puts on her
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28 David C. Hopkins, The Highlands of Canaan (Sheffield, England: Almond Press, 1985), 226.
29 Victor H. Matthews, ed., Judges and Ruth: The New Cambridge Bible Commentary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004), 232.
30 Ibid., 233.
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best clothes (3:3a), dressing like the bride she would soon be.31 Arriving unnoticed, she watches Boaz as the festivities die down, and notes where he lies down as “one of the boys,” for he apparently enjoys no place of position in this working-man’s domain (3:3b). Felwell disagrees, stating that Boaz slept at some distance from his workers.32 The text says “thou shalt mark the
place where he shall lie” (3:4), suggesting that he was within the group, not separate from it.
Chapter 3:6-13
6 And she went down unto the floor, and did according to all that her mother in law bade her. 7 And when Boaz had eaten and drunk, and his heart was merry, he went to lie down at the end of the heap of corn: and she came softly, and uncovered his feet, and laid her down. 8 And it came to pass at midnight, that the man was afraid, and turned himself: and, behold, a woman lay at his feet. 9 And he said, Who art thou? And she answered, I am Ruth thine handmaid: spread therefore thy skirt over thine handmaid; for thou art a near kinsman. 10 And he said, Blessed be thou of the LORD, my daughter: for thou hast shewed more kindness in the latter end than at the beginning, inasmuch as thou followedst not young men, whether poor or rich. 11 And now, my daughter, fear not; I will do to thee all that thou requirest: for all the city of my people doth know that thou art a virtuous woman. 12 And now it is true that I am thy near kinsman: howbeit there is a kinsman nearer than I. 13 Tarry this night, and it shall be in the morning, that if he will perform unto thee the part of a kinsman, well; let him do the kinsman’s part: but if he will not do the part of a kinsman to thee, then will I do the part of a kinsman to thee, as the LORD liveth: lie down until the morning.
Displaying no trepidation, Ruth follows Naomi’s instructions explicitly. Perhaps demure, but bold nevertheless, she remains unseen, observing (3:6). When the men are asleep Ruth treads quietly, stepping around bodies, one lovely bride-to-be among a sea of sweaty, grimy bodies, exhausted by a hard day’s work, satiated by food and drink: sleeping on the beaten ground of the
threshing floor. She comes to where he sleeps, “uncovers” (gelah, denudes, discovers, reveals [1540]) his feet, and lays down, waiting for him to awaken (3:7). Gelah has a biblically historic context that suggests more than pulling a cover back. Noah, drunk from the wine of his own vineyard, was gelah in his tent by Ham who saw his nakedness, resulting in the curse upon Canaan (Gen 9:20-26). Levitical law explains this in some detail as a technical term for
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31 Matthews, 233.
32 Felwell, 91.
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sexual relations (cf. Lev 18:6-9; 18:6-19; 20:11, 17-21). While Levitical examples cite the “nakedness (‘ervah [6172]) of the subject, Deuteronomy is more explicit: “he that lieth (shakab, has sexual relations [7901]) with . . . because he gelah his father’s skirt” (Deut 27:20). King David’s narrator gives us two interesting if different views of this issue. Michal, daughter of King Saul and wife of David cynically upbraided David after he boisterously celebrated among the people when the ark came home: “How glorious was the king of Israel today, who gelah himself today in the eyes of the handmaids of his servants” (cf. 2 Sam 6:17-21). Although some scholars contend that David was naked except for an apron, Scripture is clear that he was clothed. He did not uncover his body,33 but his soul, as he boisterously celebrated his God. However, as David tried to hide his all too fruitful relationship with Bathsheba, he tells Uriah to “Go down to thy house, and wash thy feet” (2 Sam 11:8), that is, enjoy sexual relations with his wife, according to Victor P. Hamilton.34 With these options, we hold that “gelah” is used here in its literal meaning rather than as a technical term: Ruth simply draws back the skirt that was covering his bare feet and slipped under the cover as Naomi had instructed (3:4) Scripture does not suggest that any impropriety occurred during the overnight “courtship” of Ruth and Boaz. Robert Russell Mack, extends the simple act to a legal action consistent with the context, observes that “Ezekiel 16:8f use(s) similar language to describe YHWH’s entering into (a) covenant with Israel. It would appear that this was a form of marriage proposal understood by
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33 Examples of gelah used as other than physical nudity include 2 Samuel 6:14 where David was covered at least minimally by an “ephod of linen,” a priestly apron; but expanded in 1 Chronicles 15:27 that describes the “robe of fine linen” he was also wearing at that time. 2 Samuel does not explicitly rule out the robe.
34 Victor P. Hamilton, Handbook in the Historical Books (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001), 328.
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the people of the day, but whose significance has been lost to modern readers.”35 In the context of the entire story, we must hold with Mack, that the author intended us to understand that Ruth initiated her proposal for marriage by uncovering his feet as Boaz in turn accepted her proposal by covering them both, a symbolic uniting of the two. The plain reading of the dialogue supports this position.
Boaz awakens at midnight, startled (3:8). Ruth presents her carefully prepared argument, her proposal: spread your skirt over me because you are my kinsman/redeemer. Utilizing a mature understanding of Levitical law, she suggests a concantation that stretches the boundaries and melds the fabric of the levirate marriage law (Deut 25:5-10) and the near-kinsman redeemer (Lev 25:25-28), adapting this amalgamation to herself as a foreign widow whose husband’s father was the property owner and whose wife Naomi is the true beneficiary. Boaz, admitting an interest in more than the land, says, “Blessed be thou of the LORD, my daughter (3:10a),” followed by praise of the hesed displayed to her mother-in-law. He is encouraged by Ruth’s interest in and affection for him rather than the young men, rich or poor (3:10b). Boaz’ reply suggests that he has considered the possibility of stepping into the role of the levirate. Lauding her as a virtuous woman, he accepts her proposal (3:11). He has a plan (already?) that he will implement in the morning. There is a problem with a nearer kinsman, but Boaz will take care of that. Remain unnoticed, he says, and leave before daybreak without being noticed (3:13). Matthews says he simply agreed to “act on Ruth’s behalf to protect the legal rights of her household.”36 His direct and comprehensive actions at court that same day as he purchases
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35 Robert Russell Mack, “Ruth Ch 3-4 Submit 171130, Instructor’s Comments,” OBST 510-D 03 LUO (November 2017), 18.
36 Matthews, 234.
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the land and announces his marriage contradict that argument.
Chapter 3:14-18
14 And she lay at his feet until the morning: and she rose up before one could know another. And he said, Let it not be known that a woman came into the floor. 15 Also he said, Bring the vail that thou hast upon thee, and hold it. And when she held it, he measured six measures of barley, and laid it on her: and she went into the city. 16 And when she came to her mother in law, she said, Who art thou, my daughter? And he told her all that the man had done to her. 17 And she said, These six measures of barley gave he me; for he said to me, Go not empty unto thy mother in law. 18 Then said she, Sit still, my daughter, until thou know how the matter will fall: for the man will not be in rest, until he have finished the thing this day.
The conspiring duo awaken before daybreak—if they slept at all (3:14). He cautions her to maintain secrecy (3:14). Boaz has Ruth remove her vail and fills it with grain for Naomi, getting perhaps his first look at the woman who will this day become his wife if all goes well (3:15). It has been suggested that the use of Ruth’s vail as a vessel for this grain has a twofold significance: 1) removing her vail is the reciprocal to Boaz covering her with his cloak: it is a legal act of assuming responsibility for her welfare; and 2) the grain is a bride price paid in this case to Naomi, her guardian, legitimizing his legal position at court.37 Returning home, Ruth describes her over-nighter on the threshing floor with Boaz. She recounts all that the “man had done to her” (3:16, emphasis author’s). Textus Receptus reads: ‘asah (was accomplished [6213]) which can be rendered “all that was done,” as in Esther 4:1, or as “all that he did,” as in many places such as 1 Kings 11:41; 14:29; 15:7, 23, 31; 16:14; 22:39, etc., where the writer is recounting events that have taken place rather than acts done to others. Either rendering removes any connotation of acts upon her person, while still allowing Naomi to convey the details. Naomi cautions that the outcome is not certain, but intimates that Boaz is a determined suitor who “will not be in rest, until he has finished the thing this day” (3:18). ____________________
37 Matthews, 235.
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Chapter 4:1-22
Boaz keeps his word. The nearer-kinsman (possibly an older brother?) (4:3) joins the gathered men, and would buy the land, but refuses the land plus wife deal that Boaz proposes, disappearing from history. Boaz completes the transaction acquiring a foreign wife, Elimelech’s land, and Naomi. Ruth and Boaz consummate their marriage and are blessed with their first son, Obed, who joins Boaz and his mother in the lineage of King David and the Messiah.
Chapter 4:1-6 1Then went Boaz up to the gate, and sat him down there: and, behold, the kinsman of whom Boaz spake came by; unto whom he said, Ho, such a one! turn aside, sit down here. And he turned aside, and sat down. 2 And he took ten men of the elders of the city, and said, Sit ye down here. And they sat down. 3 And he said unto the kinsman, Naomi, that is come again out of the country of Moab, selleth a parcel of land, which was our brother Elimelech’s: 4 and I thought to advertise thee, saying, Buy it before the inhabitants, and before the elders of my people. If thou wilt redeem it, redeem it: but if thou wilt not redeem it, then tell me, that I may know: for there is none to redeem it beside thee; and I am after thee. And he said, I will redeem it. 5 Then said Boaz, What day thou buyest the field of the hand of Naomi, thou must buy it also of Ruth the Moabitess, the wife of the dead, to raise up the name of the dead upon his inheritance. 6 And the kinsman said, I cannot redeem it for myself, lest I mar mine own inheritance: redeem thou my right to thyself; for I cannot redeem it.
Boaz takes his claim to court at the city gate (4:1). The translators of KJV reached a bit to translate a single Hebrew word into a coherent English thought: “there: and, behold, the kinsman,” is but the single Hebrew word, ga’al (to redeem [1350]). This eliminates any question of “behold” suggesting a “once upon a time” unexpected or magical appearance of this eternally unnamed closer kinsman. He was simply passing by or had come to join all the other men “hanging out” at the prime place of commerce, law, and gossip of the city; the “courthouse steps” of an earlier day in America. This is not to minimize the hand of God in all that is transpiring.
Israel in the time of judges cycled between prosperity and famine, peace and war. Baal and other dead gods created by man too often replaced the living God YHWH (Matt 22:32). “Every man did that which was right in his own eyes” (Judges 17:6; 21:25). The time of Ruth
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and Boaz is sometime within this period (1:1). Other than the coming and going of famine, the narrative indicates that this was one of those times of peace, at least in the area of Bethlehem. The Levitical law was generally administered in the city gates by local rulers who were not necessarily trained in law or interested in the “letter” of the law, as long as peace was maintained. Boaz brought what appears from this distance in time to be a novel solution to the court: concatenate the levirate marriage law (Deut 25:5-10) and the laws of the redeemer (Lev 25:25-28) to discourage his competition and secure wife and land. There is no objection from the court or the nearer-kinsman, who declines the all-or-nothing opportunity.
This cancantation of the law perplexes some scholars who seek to explain Boaz’ legal maneuverings from a distance of millennia rather than accept them as others have for these many years and learn from them. Michael Goulder writes that the selection of laws from the “relatively narrow” portion of Deuteronomy 22:30 through 25:10 suggests that “either the author wished to display learned artfulness or that the Book of Ruth is the work of a preacher called upon to expound upon Deuteronomy 22-25 and had the genius to do so in narrative form.”38 B. A. Levine says that Ruth is not a statement of the legal practices current at the time, but that the author is an “artful manipulator of legalities who transposes laws into legal themes.”39 Joshua Berman, citing Michael Fishbane, argues that this aggadic use of legal material in ancient Israel was not a matter of “reinterpreting the law or even portraying their normative application as part of a corpus juris,” but “exists solely for its own rhetorical sake . . . extracted from its original focus,”
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38 Michael D. Goulder, “Ruth: A Homily on Deuteronomy 22-25?” ed. Heather A. McKay and David J. A. Clines. “Of Prophets” Visions and the Wisdom of the Sages: Essays in Honor of R. Norman Whybray on his Seventieth Birthday, JSOT, 162 (1993), 318.
39 B. A. Levine, “In Praise of the Israelite Mispaha: Legal Themes in the Book of Ruth. Ed. H. B. Huffmon, et. al. “The Quest for the Kingdom of God: Studies in Honor of George E. Mendenhall (1983), 98.
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emerging within a “new configuration of meaning.”40 An alternative approach is to assume that it is a story about three people whose lives converge in an expression of individual and corporate hesed, describing real events, and selectively using verbal props (such as the death of loved ones, harvest time, the law as a vehicle) to tell a story with a purpose: here, showing his audience God’s hesed in the lives of everyday folks like them, even as He fulfills His master plan through them. The author, like all authors within the narrative tradition, does not painstakingly include a moment-by-moment chronology, but weaves selected events into a cohesive story to illustrate a point. In scholastic zeal we sometimes fail to allow the ancient author to select characters, events, and props to build the story line, even as we take that liberty in our own evaluation.
Chapter 4:7-12
7 Now this was the manner in former time in Israel concerning redeeming and concerning changing, for to confirm all things; a man plucked off his shoe, and gave it to his neighbour: and this was a testimony in Israel. 8 Therefore the kinsman said unto Boaz, Buy it for thee. So he drew off his shoe. 9 And Boaz said unto the elders, and unto all the people, Ye are witnesses this day, that I have bought all that was Elimelech’s, and all that was Chilion’s and Mahlon’s, of the hand of Naomi. 10 Moreover Ruth the Moabitess, the wife of Mahlon, have I purchased to be my wife, to raise up the name of the dead upon his inheritance, that the name of the dead be not cut off from among his brethren, and from the gate of his place: ye are witnesses this day. 11 And all the people that were in the gate, and the elders, said, We are witnesses. The LORD make the woman that is come into thine house like Rachel and like Leah, which two did build the house of Israel: and do thou worthily in Ephratah, and be famous in Beth-lehem: 12 and let thy house be like the house of Pharez, whom Tamar bare unto Judah, of the seed which the LORD shall give thee of this young woman.
The transaction was consummated by the traditional removal of the shoe: Boaz was declared the winning bidder for wife and land belonging to Elimelech and passed down to his sons Chilion and Mahlon and post mortem to Naomi (4:9). The purchase price of the land was Naomi’s by inheritance. The next question is problematical for those who see the book as an ancient tome promoting a feminist agenda. The narrator tells us that Boaz purchased (qanah, to
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40 Berman, 22. (Where aggadic adaptation is of laws other than direct commandments, therefore conditionally applicable in this situation, apparently subject here to the ruling of the court).
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procure, especially by purchase [7069]) Ruth to be his wife as an extended levirate marriage to “raise up the names of the dead,” shrewdly adding, “upon his inheritance,” tying the proposal concatenation to the purchase (4:10). It would be easy to say that here qanah is used as a payment of a dowry (4:11). However, being sensitive to context, qanah in 4:9 appears to be an outright purchase. Nehemiah might offer an alternative as he says, we “have redeemed (qanah) our brethren the Jews, which were sold unto the heathen” (Neh 5:8). In each case a cost was incurred, but the distinction is between purchase and redemption. It has been observed that the Levitical law did not prohibit the purchase of foreigners, but the thematic current of hesed makes this reading improbable.
At this point we wonder if the day was one of normal commerce, or if Boaz has issued a press release. Upon sealing the deal, the elders, the average man at the gate, and the women gathered around and joined in a prophetic chorus:
We are witnesses. The LORD make the woman that is come into thine house like Rachel and like Leah, which two did build the house of Israel: and do thou worthily in Ephratah, and be famous in Beth-lehem: 12 and let thy house be like the house of Pharez, whom Tamar bare unto Judah, of the seed which the LORD shall give thee of this young woman (4:11-12).
Continuing the narrative without comment on the overt prophetic nature of the affirmation (or was it simply a standard ritual expression?), the narrator inserts this link into the chain of the Messiah. Sensing something special in Ruth and Boaz’ relationship, the crowd compares her with Rachel and her sister Leah, who through Jacob/Israel became matriarchs of the nation and through Tamar, widow of Lot’s son Er.
Chapter 4:13-17
13 So Boaz took Ruth, and she was his wife: and when he went in unto her, the LORD gave her conception, and she bare a son. 14 And the women said unto Naomi, Blessed be the LORD, which hath not left thee this day without a kinsman, that his name may be famous in Israel. 15 And he shall be unto thee a restorer of thy life, and a nourisher of thine old age: for thy daughter in law, which loveth thee, which is better to thee than seven sons, hath born him. 16 And Naomi took the child, and laid it in her bosom, and became nurse unto it. 17 And the women her neighbours gave it a name, saying, There is a son born to Naomi; and they called his name Obed: he is the father of Jesse, the father of David.
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Boaz fathers a male child through Ruth (4:13). Continuing the theme of the crowd at the gate (4:11-12), townswomen consider the child a gift of YHWH, giving rise again to the names of her husband and sons, but above that, one who will be “famous (qara’, one who is called, who cries out [7121]) in Israel” (4:14). In retrospect, the child who would be named Obed, although an essential link, has been all but lost in the shadows of Ruth and Boaz, a name in a genealogy rather than one remembered for his deeds, good or bad. He did become a “restorer (shuwb, turn, retreat, but also restore [7725]) of life worth living for Naomi, who became his nurse (4:15, 16), and in the minds of her peers, her own child (4:17b). The restoration was made possible by the marriage, but was accomplished through the baby: “The future is written in the birth of every child.”41 True-to-life, this future has manifold facets: Naomi is restored, again useful and appreciated for what she does; Boaz and Ruth become one as a prominent family in their community; Obed grows and becomes a productive member of society, a family man who is father of Jesse; who in turn becomes a productive member of his generation and the father of King David; and on it goes. The celebratory song of the women to Ruth (4:14-15) praising “YHWH’s role as the covenantal provider of land and children” again reminds the reader that God is a personal God whose hesed is present in times of despair and of joy (1:19:21).42
Ruth appoints her mother-in-law as nurse to the child with an extended family of all of Bethlehem. The women name him Obed (‘Owbed, serving [5744]). Mara is transformed once again to Naomi as she accepts the hesed of God in her life and the life of her growing and prospering family even we do not see her becoming any more God-centric. Ruth is a mirror of the lovingkindness God showed Job as He restored and increased him at the end of the trial (Job
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41 Matthews, 243.
42 Tod Linafelt and Timothy K. Beal, Ruth and Esther (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1999), 241.
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42:10). There, too, God was hidden from view but never absent, accessible always through faith, especially the faith-in-action of hesed. His intent is always ga’al for those who love Him, even if obedience is not absolute and faith waxes and wanes. Abraham D. Cohen summarizes ga’al as more than just a technical term about reclaiming ancestral property: it has a far deeper implication that includes sustaining and restoring “abundant life, both physical and spiritual.”43 Here it is both: poverty is replaced with plenty; desperate aloneness is replaced with the warmth and love of family; egocentricity is replaced with hesed, still familial in Naomi if not Godward. Obed, in his time, becomes the father of Jesse, the father of David, a member of the lineage of the Christ.
Chapter 4:18-22
18 Now these are the generations of Pharez: Pharez begat Hezron, 19 and Hezron begat Ram, and Ram begat Amminadab, 20 and Amminadab begat Nahshon, and Nahshon begat Salmon, 21 and Salmon begat Boaz, and Boaz begat Obed, 22 and Obed begat Jesse, and Jesse begat David.
The genealogy of Verse 18 expands the the previous verse: the ten-name genealogy begins with Pharez, one of twins delivered to Tamar from her deceitful use of Judah mentioned above, and ends with David, the king after God’s own heart. Ruth (1:5) was memorialized in
Matthew’s genealogy of Jesus (Matt 1:1-16) with only four other women: Tamar (1:3), Rahab (1:5), Bathsheba (though not by name) (1:6), and Mary the mother of Jesus (1:16).
Jacob called his sons together to tell them “what shall befall you in the last days” (Gen 49:1). His messianic message was that: “The scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come” (Gen 49:10). That scepter runs directly through Boaz and Ruth, their son Obed, on to David the King, and is consummated in Jesus. Throughout the
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43 Cohen, 166.
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path of that scepter God’s hesed is visible as His eternal racham (compassionate love and mercy [7355]) for Judah (Hos 1:7).
Applications
This section is necessary because we are far removed in language, culture, and circumstance from the original audience that the author of Ruth addressed. Contemporary biblical scholars disagree agreeably over fine points (and sometimes not so fine points) of translation and nuance. This, of course, affects both the translation and the derivation of correct applications for today’s Christian. Beyond the specific we must consider Ruth as one book of the canon, an integral part of the whole but nonetheless, only one part. J. Daniel Hays has developed a five-step approach to interpreting and developing contemporary applications of OT law that will be adapted to narrative, and used here to derive applications. As adapted, the approach is: 1) identify what the narrative meant to the initial audience; 2) determine the differences between the original audience and believers today; 3) develop universal principles from the text; 4) correlate the principle with NT teaching; and, 5) apply the modified universal principle to life today.44
Our culture provides safety nets for the impoverished, access to courts for legal petitions,
and stable laws for inheritance. Unlike the Jews in the time of the Judges, we don’t find ourselves in and out of captivity by foreign enemies who besiege our cities, nor face famine in the land. Our points of contact are a growing secularism and agnosticism, but more importantly, like Ruth, it is also the often unseen (except, perhaps, in retrospect) hesed/charis of God.
Ruth is a story with a message as intended by the author, and even more importantly, by
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44 Hays, 31-33. (As adapted by the author to the narrative genre).
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God the divine author. While considered in a general perspective as a story with a purpose, the astute incisiveness of scholarship that addresses the specific is not disregarded but is built upon. The understanding of the original text to the original audience is essential to derive proper applications today, but the jots and tittles of scholarly classification and evaluation are not that message. An attentive reading of the story impresses the one with the depth of the characters. They are not two-dimensional cartoon characters but have lives that reflect the real world of actions that beget reactions, blended with complex motives and thoughts on multiple levels. Effective applications must reflect this real-world complexity. Actions are objective and emperical, while motives are subjective, interpreted by necessity through the distorted lens of our own experience.
Hesed: Is it a NT Concept?
Before we move to an application of hesed for Christians in the 21st Century, we must briefly explore the concept in the context of the NT church. Lovingkindness is only an OT word in KJV. We need a link to NT language to proceed. Using the LXX as a steppingstone to bridge the ancient Hebrew with biblical Greek, John R. Neal finds that hesed is translated “mercy” (e/leoj and its derivatives) “some thirty-four times” in Joshua, Judges, and Ruth.45 The Vulgate, he says, “renders hesed as the Latin misericordia, translated in English as “mercy” or “grace.”46
NT Greek is charis [5485]. Neal argues that covenant or other relationship is required for hesed: in Jesus we have both: He is both the New Covenant that replaces the old (Heb 8:13) and the mediator of that covenant (Heb 12:24) that extends relationally to all people.47 Superior to the
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45 John R. Neal, “Hesed: Loyalty or Lovingkindness,” Amridge University, Turner School of Theology, Biblical Etymology & Exegesis (FD 9353) for Dr. Rodney Cloud (Undated), 7.
46 Ibid, 8.
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old covenants, through Jesus we are saved by the sacrificial charis of the cross (Acts 15:11).
Applying the Hesed of Ruth Today
Our world runs on opinion. Politicians, the corporate world, even us, the users of social media, all seem to rely upon the opinions of others to shape our fluid worldviews. “Truth” that mimes the most current poll is relative and relationships are as superficial and fleeting as opinion. The hesed, the charis, shown by Ruth, Naomi, and Boaz are outdated. Big government, insurance, or the love of our live de jour will take care of our needs. God is ignored or compartmentalized, self is elevated and exhibited as atheism or agnosticism. The problem with all of this is that it is false. It is unreal. Truth is emperical and unchanging and real relationships are based upon commitment, not feelings and opinions. Salvation is on His terms, not ours (2 Tim 1:8-10)
Contemporary applications begin with a biblical worldview. This is indispensable. Jesus said that as we accept Him as our Savior, we take upon ourselves His “yoke” as we accept His direction and learn of Him so that we “shall find rest unto your souls” (Matt 11:29). Here are some applications:
–God is real and relational. He has created all (Gen 1:1) yet sustains (Psalm 3:5) and communicates with the individual (John 15:26). His holiness (which he requires us to mirror in
our obedience to Him) (1 Cor 3:17), as part of his infinitude (Ps 147:5), is uncompromising (2 Thes 1:8) yet He has since the fall of Adam made provision for man to re-enter into fellowship with Him (John 1:12). Throughout Ruth we see His omnipresent observation and guidance. Our first application is the most important, for it has eternal consequences for every person: we must
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47 Neal, 8.
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acknowledge that we are sinners (Rom 3:23), eternally lost and unable to become otherwise; we must accept Him as our personal Savior (Matt 17:8). This is His hesed/charis (Matt 9:13).
— God is present. Always (Prov 15:3). In this presence He knows the hearts of man (Luke 16:15). He has set the stage for His will to be accomplished and guides both the willing and unwilling, the knowing and the unknowing, to accomplish that will. Ruth experienced this (“and her hap was” (2:3)). His presence in the Christian in the Person of the Holy Spirit (John 14:26) is beyond our capacity to even imagine (1 Cor 2:9). He cannot be compartmentalized. Subdividing our busy lives into work time, play time, family quality time, sleep time, God time, is not consistent with the mandate to follow and serve our Christ: “If any man serve me, let him follow me; and where I am, there shall also my servant be: if any man serve me, him will my Father honor” (John 12:26). Throughout Ruth we see His hesed present in every step. Our application is to acknowledge Him and submit to His will in our lives (Prov 3:6).
–God is a god of hesed and charis. The confusion and condemnation of the law has been replaced in the NT with those aspects made manifest through Jesus Christ (John 1:17) as the old covenant of the Law has been replaced by His new covenant promised in the OT (Jer 31:31) and delivered by the Messiah (cf. Heb 8:13; 2:24). Hesed is evident in the lives of Naomi, Ruth, and Boaz as they walk uprightly in a real world and are preserved and prospered by Him. Our application is to live a lifestyle of hesed/charis toward others in the OT sense of love at work rather than the passive spectatorship common today.
–Unlike Naomi seemed to think during her Mari phase, the world does not revolve around us, but exists for the pleasure of God (Rev 4:11), who is the absolute sovereign (Ps 46:10). His creation is both ordered and hierarchical. Ruth came to Boaz seeking his will and approval (3:8-9), as he in turn sought the will and approval of the nearer kinsman and the court
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(4:1-12). His will is certain to be accomplished, either with us or only through us (Matt 26:42). We have two options: 1) accept His salvation and develop a growing relationship with Him and prosper on an eternal scale (John 15:7-8); or, 2) reject His leadership and face His condemnation (John 3:18-19). Our application is to seek His will for our lives through the study of His Word (1 Thes 4:11), through prayer that brings submission (Matt 6:10), and the benefits will be forthcoming (Prov 3:5-6).
–God is concerned about individuals. While providing an essential link in the lineage of David and the Christ through Ruth and Boaz (4:18-22), YHWH continually allowed Naomi, Ruth, and Boaz to mirror His OT hesed and NT charis in their relationships with each other. This concern is not tied to national origins, race, sex, social status, or any other parameter important to man, but to each individual (Matt 11:28). He did this in unique ways for each person. Our application, our challenge, is to incorporate the divine hesed/charis into every relationship in our lives. We are equipped for it (cf. John 1:14, 16). It remains for us to “testify the gospel of the charis of God” (Acts 20:24b).
–Men and women are equally important to God. This book shows Naomi, Ruth, and Boaz as leading characters, each receiving benefits and obligations specific to them as responsible individuals. God accepted the bold plan of Naomi and Ruth to achieve a secure future in the household of Boaz as he formalized the plan and carried it forward to its conclusion. Neither man nor woman was exalted above the other nor denigrated as subservient to the other in this OT story. Our application is to accept our roles and responsibilities as individuals, not as some non-Scriptural we-they divisions. Sin is universal (Rom 3:23). The offer of salvation is universal (John 3:16). The acceptance into that salvation is universal (Acts 5:14). Subsequent service is to Him alone, not to factions, divisions, and special interests (cf. Matt 4:10; 6:24).
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–Every detail is important to God. Naomi’s husband and sons perished in Moab, far from home where their names could be carried on through a levirate marriage. Yet, Naomi, returning to the YHWH, and Ruth turning to Him, provided not only relief but victory through the concantation of laws that brought Boaz and Ruth into the unity of marriage and parenthood. Today we would do well to avoid “stalling” in self-pity and move forward continually knowing that He is sovereign, that His will is going to be accomplished, that He cares for each of us regardless of our nationality, sex, or position, and that every detail of our lives is important to Him. Our application, our duty, is to seek the power of the Holy Spirit in our individual lives through studying His Word (2 Tim 2:15), rejoicing in Him as we pray (1 Thes 5:16-18), and accepting the leadership of the Holy Spirit (John 14:26) as we, like Paul, become willing “prisoners of the Lord” who “walk worthy of the vocation” to which we are called (Eph 4:1).
–The story of Ruth and her compatriots is a story of incremental actions that completed a divine plan even as through His charis their own lives benefited. Through their obedience His strength was magnified in their weakness as He will do for us (2 Cor 12:9). Our application is to continue to move forward in Him in the face of feast or famine as Ruth did, in hesed with Naomi as they relocated from Moab to Bethlehem (1:16-17), in productivity as she spent hard hours in the fields gleaning grain for their food (2:2-3), and relationally as she entered the marriage relationship with Boaz (4:9). Each of these incremental steps was taken to meet the moment’s needs even as it helped to secure their future. Our application is to know that He is present and working in us through the Holy Spirit, that we are “agents” of the Most High God (Is 48:17).
–The book of Ruth is not “religious” in the sense that we see priests, sacrifices, and worship of YHWH as major themes. In fact, they are missing altogether. Yet, as we read the four chapters we can see a clear precursor to NT teaching:
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10 For with the heart man believeth unto righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation. 11 For the scripture saith, Whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed. 12 For there is no difference between the Jew and the Greek: for the same Lord over all is rich unto all that call upon him. 13 For whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved (Rom 10:12-13).
Each key player depended upon the Lord, overtly seeking the protection of the Law, and internally as they mirrored His hesed. The book of Ruth, however, is not un-religious. We see a glimpse of the future church as Naomi, Ruth, and Boaz represent that coming “generation, a royal priesthood, a holy nation (family)” called out of darkness into His light (1 Peter 2:9). None was perfect as He measures perfection; each was unique. His lovingkindness is broad and deep enough for all of us. Our application is to understand that we are God’s creatures; that the Sabbath was created by Him as a day of rest, not as the compartment into which we cram our God-time. He created every day and time itself, every man and woman, all for His pleasure (Rev 4:11). He wants to give each of us a fulness of life, joy, and eternal pleasures (Ps 16:11), all of which are the result (only) of fellowship with Him (Luke 18:1).
–Hard work is rewarded. Ruth never wavered from doing that which was necessary to assure the survival of Naomi and herself. Both the OT (Deut 14:29) and NT (cf. 1Tim:5) provide for “widows and orphans,” that is, those truly in need; both require that we carry our own load: “this we commanded you, that if any would not work, neither should he eat” (2 Thes 3:10). Our application is to resist the temptation to shirk our load, to produce minimally to “get by” expecting others to carry our load, including our government. This includes our God-give-me prayers where we lean on the promise without adhering to the always-present conditions. We must resist the woe-is-me attitude of Mari and maintain the Naomi attitude, knowing that God cares about each of us, all of the time. The obverse of this is that we are called to help and support those in need (James 1:27).
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–God’s people have a social duty as well as a spiritual one: Naomi and Ruth survived through provisions of the Mosaic law (Lev 23:22) as Boaz, representing those who prospered, shared with those who had none. Yet, we must remember Jesus’ warnings to maintain an essential balance. He told His followers that there was a time to take care of the poor, but that their relationship with Him came first: the repetition in the Gospels show the importance of this message (cf. Matt 26:11; Mark 14:7; John 12:8). Remembering this balance, we see that Naomi took care of Ruth, Boaz took care of both, and the town ladies took care of the family and child. The spirit of hesed is one of “care on wheels,” as it is love implemented. This is our application as we seek out the lonely, the shut-in, the helpless to provide relief and fellowship in His name and with His guidance, beginning with our own families (1 Tim 5:16). John said it this way: My little children, let us not love in word, neither in tongue; but in deed in truth” (1 John 3:18).
–Both Naomi and Ruth demonstrated patience as they developed a solution to their problem: the acted incrementally to develop a relationship with the kinsman redeemer who would purchase Naomi’s land, marry Ruth, and build a stable extended family. An application concerns our witness as we seek to bring lost souls to Christ or to bring the saved into a closer relationship with Him. Patience, prayer, and trust are often required as we present the Gospel to these folks, remembering that it is our calling to present the Word as we have received it, as witnesses to an event and an experience (Acts 1:8), which we do in the power of the Holy Spirit (Acts 5:32), that the Holy Spirit may work in their lives as in ours (Titus 3:5). The result is that “both he that soweth and he that reapeth may rejoice together” (John 4:36b). Our “better ideas” are, in retrospect, always paled by His effected plan. The writer of Hebrews said, “For ye have need of patience, that after ye have done the will of God, ye might receive the promise” (Heb 10:36).
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–God does what He says He will do, and by extension He expects each of us to do the same: as He is holy we are called to be holy (1 Peter 1:15). Ruth promised Naomi that she would live and die with her, making her promise before God, a covenant (1:16-17). She kept her promise. Paul, being questioned by Festus, said that he spoke only “words of truth and soberness” (Acts 26:25). John told us that the “Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us . . . full of grace and truth” (John 1:14). Our application is to not give our word without due consideration as did Jephthah (Judges 10:15), but once given, to keep it at all costs, renouncing the “hidden things of dishonesty . . . by manifestation of the truth commending ourselves to every man’s conscience in the sight of God” (2 Cor 4:2).
36
Bibliography
Berman, Joshua. “Ancient Hermeneutics and the Legal Structure of the Book of Ruth.” Zeitschrifft fur die attestamentliche Wissenchaft, 119 No 1 (2007): 22-38. Accessed 30 October 2017. http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu /ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=13&sid=dc2299d5-f90e-4765-b031-1b989f4fe613%40sessionmgr102.
Block, Daniel. Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament: Ruth. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2015.
Cohen, Abraham D. “The Eschatological Meaning of the Book of Ruth: ‘Blessed be God: Asher Lo Hisbit Lak Go’El’” Jewish Bible Quarterly, 1 July 2012, 163-170. Accessed 30 October 2017. (ATLA0001901231). http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=3&sid=dc2299d5-f90e-4765-b031-1b989f4fe613%40sessionmgr102.
Fewell, Danna Nolan. “Space for Moral Agency in the Book of Ruth.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 40.1 (2015): 79-96. Accessed 30 October 2017. (ATLAn3817040). http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=9&sid=dc2299d5-f90e-4765-b031-1b989f4fe613%40sessionmgr102&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=ATLAn3817040&db=rfh.
Fischer, Irmtraud. “The Book of Ruth as Exegetical Literature.” European Judaism, 40 no. 2 (Winter 2007): 140-149. Accessed 31 October 2017. (ATLA 0001986674). http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=20&sid=1b0499ce-8e78-4762-a89a-8fb8cdfc7c66%40sessionmgr4010.
Freedman, Amelia Devin. “Naomi’s Mission: A Commentary on the Book of Ruth,” Proceedings (Grand Rapids), 23 (2003): 289-38. Accessed 31 October 2017. (ATLA 0001494156). http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=12&sid=1b0499ce-8e78-4762-a89a-8fb8cdfc7c66%40sessionmgr4010.
Goulder, Michael D. “Ruth: A Homily on Deuteronomy 22-25?” Heather A. McKay and David J. A. Clines, ed. “Of Prophets’ Visions and the Wisdom of the Sages: Essays in Honor of R. Norman Whybray on his Seventieth Birthday, JSOT, 162 (1993).
Grant, Reg. “Literary Structure in the Book of Ruth.” Bibliotheca Sacra, 148 no. 592 (October-December 1991): 424-441. (ATLA 0000843533). http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=17&sid=1b0499ce-8e78-4762-a89a-8fb8cdfc7c66%40sessionmgr4010.
Hamilton, Victor P. Handbook in the Historical Books. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001.
37
Hays, J. Daniel. “Applying the Old Testament Law Today.” Bibliotheca Sacra 158 (January-March 2001): 21-35.
Hopkins, David C. The Highlands of Canaan. Sheffield, England: Almond Press, 1985.
Levine, B. A. “In Praise of the Israelite Mispaha: Legal Themes in the Book of Ruth. Ed. H. B. Huffmon, et. al. “The Quest for the Kingdom of God: Studies in Honor of George E. Mendenhall (1983).
Linafelt, Tod, and Timothy K. Beal. Ruth and Esther. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1999.
Mack, Robert Russell. 2017. “Ruth Ch 3-4 Submit 171130,” OBST 510-D 03, LUO, 2017, 18, accessed 7 December 2017. https://learn.liberty.edu/webapps/assignment/
uploadAssignment?content_id=_19700468_1&course_id=_387776_1&assign_group_id=&mode=view
Maclister, R. A. S. Excavation of Gezer, Vol. 2. London: James Murray, 1912.
Matthews, Victor H., ed. Judges and Ruth: The New Cambridge Bible Commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004.
Merrill, Eugene H. “The Book of Ruth: Narration and Shared Themes.” Bibliotheca Sacra, 142 no. 566 (Apr-Jun 1985): 130-141. Accessed 31 October 2017. (ATLA 0000946422). http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=25&sid=1b0499ce-8e78-4762-a89a-8fb8cdfc7c66%40sessionmgr4010.
Michael, Matthew. “The Art of Persuasion and the Book of Ruth: Literary Devices in the Persuasive Speeches of Ruth 1:6-18.” Hebrew Studies, 1 January 2015, 145-162. Accessed 30 October 2017. (ATLAn3879118). http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=6&sid=dc2299d5-f90e-4765-b031-1b989f4fe613%40sessionmgr102&bdata= JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=ATLAn3879118&db=rfh.
Neal, John R. “Hesed: Loyalty or Lovingkindness.” Amridge University, Turner School of Theology, Biblical Etymology & Exegesis (FD 9353), for Dr. Rodney Cloud. (Undated). Accessed 4 December 2017. https://www.scribd.com/document/102512701/Hesed-in-the-Old-Testament-Loyalty-or-Lovingkindness
Strong, James. The New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1996.
Trible, Phyllis. God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality, OBT. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978

Neo-Theology: The Language of God in the Image of Man

LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
Biblical Theology:
Neo-theology: The Language of God in the Image of Man;
A Brief Overview of the Use of Theological Language by Paul Tillich
Submitted to Dr. Daniel Sheard
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of
THEO 510-D 06
Spring 2017
Introduction to Theology
by
Robert Beanblossom
11 May 2017
ii
Contents
Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………….1
A Brief Descriptive Survey of Contemporary Theology ………………………………………2
The Enlightenment ………………………………………………………………………..3
Idealism ……………………………………………………………………………………3
Standard Liberalism ……………………………………………………………………….4
Neo-Orthodoxy ……………………………………………………………………………5
The Theology of Paul Tillich …………………………………………………………………….6
Theological Presuppositions ……………………………………………………………..7
Theology Proper …………………………………………………………………………..7
Hamartiology ……………………………………………………………………………..8
Soteriology ………………………………………………………………………………..9
Christology ………………………………………………………………………………10
Pneumatology……………………………………………………………….……………10
Conclusion……………………………………………………………….………………………11
Selected Bibliography .…………………………………………………………………………..12
1
Introduction
For many years there was one Christian theology with variations: each was a biblically
based and historically supported system of interlocking disciplines that began with the exegesis
of the Word and continued through the systemization of the data to provide sound and cohesive
doctrine: it was intelligible; required the explanation provided by exegesis and systemization;
and was Bible sourced.1 Theology is a uniquely Christian concept: there is a reasonable
expectation of it being biblically based and God centered.2 Theology has limitations, and those
limitations must coincide with the limitations of biblical revelation; logic and science have a
place, but “when logic is used to create truth . . . the theologian will be guilty of pushing his
system beyond the limits of biblical truth.”3 Dogmatic theologies, such Anababaptist, Armenian,
and Calvinist, disagree on points that are vague in the scripture,4 while agreeing on the essential
points of doctrine; diverging at the borders of interpretation, not revelation. A critical difference
exists among neo-theologians, a variety that rejects biblical values, seeking god-as-man-as-god
to replace the God of creation and His Word. Orthodox theology acknowledges that the basis of
authority is both objective and external to man, and is limited to the objective revelation of God
through his inspired Bible.5 Neo-orthodox authority, as expressed by Karl Barth, is the Word as
Christ the man, with the Bible but a fallible witness to that Word.6 Orthodox theologians, as all
Christians, must be wise stewards of the Word, presenting “sound doctrine” in season and out (2
____________________
1 J.J. Mueller, et al., Theological Foundations: Concepts and Methods for Understanding the Christian Faith, (Winona, MN: St. Mary’s Press, 2007), 1.
2 Ibid.
3 Charles C. Ryrie, Basic Theology: A Popular Systematic Guide to Understanding Biblical Truth, (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 1999), 17-18.
4 Paul Enns, The Moody Theological Handbook, Revised and Expanded, (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2014), 589.
5 Ibid., Ryrie, 21-22.
6 Ibid., 23.
2
Tim 4:1-3). The theological language of Paul Tillich is representative of this growing group of
contemporary theologians who distort the familiar language of conservative Christian theology
in deceptive philosophical theologies that deny the God of the Bible.7
A Brief Descriptive Survey of Contemporary Theology
A body of theology began with the Enlightenment that disregards the Bible, redefines
God, and undermines faith in the Bible, miracles, and divine revelation.8 Essential elements
include a departure from the biblical foundations of orthodoxy and movement into the realm of
philosophy while retaining traditional theological and biblical terms; departing from the basic
framework of theology as “a discipline of study that seeks to understand the God revealed in the
Bible and to provide a Christian understanding of reality.”9
Friedrich Nietzsche’s declaration that “God is dead,” began something unique, not just in
theology, but in Western culture: “Ours is the first attempt in recorded history to build a culture
on the premise that God is dead.”10 Inherent in their rational subjectivity is skepticism as a
worldview; they are more philosophical than theological, dominated by human reason and
feelings: the authority of Scripture is replaced with that of man.11 John Caputo suggests the
frailty of these schools of theology: historically, each, with only rationality as a foundation,
is replaced by the next: “There are both theological (Kierkegaard) and anti-theological
(Nietzsche) motives behind the emergence of the postmodern. But no matter how you
____________________
7 Ibid., Enns, 611-613.
8 Ibid., 589-636.
9 Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 3rd ed., (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013), 3.
10 Gabriel Vahanian, The Death of God: The Culture of our Post-Christian Era, (NY: George Braziller, 1961), xiii.
11 Ibid., Enns, 583.
3
cut it, is inevitable that something that gets to be called postmodern will provide an opening for
the post-secular . . . ”12 Traditional theological language appears in new contexts and adapted
meanings that can be misleading. Biblical theologians are challenged to maintain the relevance
of traditional theological language to protect the biblical concepts expressed: “Beware of false
profits, which come to you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves” (Matt
7:15).13
The Enlightenment
John Locke (1632-1704) substituted subjectivism for biblical authority. Knowledge is only
experiential, derived from sensations and developed into reflections through contemplation.
Locke was correct that the Christian is in an experiential relationship with Christ, but experience
is only part of that equation (cf. Rom 6:8). Rejecting all that “contradicted experimental reason,”
he laid a foundation for liberalism and neo-orthodoxy14 in contradiction to Scripture (cf. 2 Cor
4:18). George Berkeley (1685-1753) built upon the precept that knowledge exists only in the
mind: Scripture disagrees (cf. Acts 22:14). Not an atheist, his god was not supernatural.15 David
Hume (1711-1776) denied spiritual realities, attacked miracles, and concluded that objective
truth was unknowable.16 The Enlightenment replaced biblical foundations with rationalism.17
Idealism
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) expanded rationalism, arguing that any concept of God must
come from reason, attacking traditional “proofs for the existence of God: “Jesus as man could not
___________________
12 John D Caputo, Philosophy and Theology, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2006), 44.
13 All Scripture from the King James Bible unless otherwise noted.
14 Ibid., Enns, 589.
16 Ibid., 590.
17 Ibid., 497.
4
be God” (John 1:1-2).18 Contrary God’s declaration, “Knowledge cannot exist apart from
rationalism . . . and empiricism.”19, For George Hegel (1770-1831), the only reality was the
mind: “everything else is an expression of the mind.”20 “All reality is an expression of the
Absolute, who is God,” a God of the mind, not Him of the Bible.21 The Psalmist said, “Be
still, and know that I am God” (Ps 46:10a). Hegel saw God in terms of a dialectic: thesis against
antithesis: “the real is rational and the rational is real.”22 He taught that the rational evolution of
Christianity was speculative philosophy.23 God, however, says He is stability, not change: “Jesus
Christ the same yesterday, and today, and forever” (Heb 13:8). Idealistic utopianism advanced
man as Authority, deconstructing the biblical God to fit humanistic utopian theories. Global war
demonstrated again the true nature of man, destroying the utopian Idealism.
Standard Liberalism
Variations on a theme continued: individuals differed considerably, but all de-deified
God and made the Bible co-equal with other books. Freidrich Schleiermacher (1763-1834), the
“father of neo-Orthodoxy and modern liberalism,” countered rationalism with a “theology of
feeling”24 “in which the person could experience God,”25 holding with Scripture that reveals
man’s experiential knowledge of God (cf. Luke 1:1-4), but departing from orthodoxy, he
emphasized the “subjective nature of religion” that was “ethical . . . feeling an absolute
dependence (on) God-consciousness;” correctly asking, “what must I do to be saved,” but
discarding biblical tenants of salvation: sin is man isolating himself from God and other men.26
Regeneration results as man participates in the contemporary.27 Declaring that experience
____________________
18 Ibid., Enns, 590.
19 Ibid., 591.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid., 593.
25 Ibid.
26 Ibid.
27 Ibid.
5
replaces authority, he set the stage for later neo-orthodoxy to continue the rejection of
Scripture.28 Albrecht Ritschl (1822-1889) sought a practical religion, rejecting the philosophical
and experiential.29 Like Nicodemus, in his preconceptions, avoided God’s plan and solution
(John 3:1-21). He rejected traditional concepts of original sin, the bodily resurrection of Christ,
and miracles as impractical, thus unimportant.30 Adolph von Harnack (1851-1930) believed that
“Christian beliefs were molded by Greek thought.” Scripture teaches that the Gospel was taken to
the Greeks, not received from them (Rom 1:16). In denying the deity of Christ and the
miraculous, he sought revelation through the “central truth or kernel” of the first-century church:
the religion of Jesus the man instead of Jesus the mythological Christ.31
Biblical, or “Higher,” criticism developed in this period. Jean Astruc (1684-1766), and
others, began an ever-increasing dissection of the biblical text, replacing historically accepted
authors and dates with an increasing variety of “scientifically derived” but undocumented
sources “uncovered” through textual studies, thus rejecting the historical accuracy of the Bible.32
Walter Rauschenbusch (1861-1918) the “father of the social gospel,” considered capitalism evil
and found Jesus’ love as the cure. With language and context considered, he rejected the person
and message of Jesus in favor of his social agenda rather than the whole of scriptural truth.33
World War I destroyed the idealistic dreams of Liberal Theology as the realities of
man’s behavior were demonstrated once again. Henry Emerson Fosdick (1878-1969) attempted
to rescue theology after the war with his New Liberalism, called “realistic theology.”34 Rejecting
orthodoxy and intellectualism, he sought God “outside of man.” and his failures.35
Neo-orthodoxy or Dialectical Theology
The new movement was neo-Orthodoxy. Sounding like a return to orthodox values, it was a
continuation of rationalism that discarded the idealism. Soren Kierkegaard (1835-1855) refined
____________________
____________________
28 Ibid. Enns, 594.
29 Ibid., 594.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid., 594-5.
32 Ibid., 595.
33 Ibid., 596.
34 Ibid., 597.
35 Ibid.
6
existential theology based upon the historicity of Christ and biblical events.36 A Christ who is
grounded in history was an improvement, but the history was narrowly interpreted and his Jesus
was caricature of the real Christ. His transcendent God was difficult to know, requiring absolute
obedience, and a subjective “leap of faith in despair” to effect an empty encounter,37 Karl Barth
“returned (theologians) to a study of the Bible,” that was not the Word of God, but a “witness” to
the Word.38 Sounding orthodox, he taught that revelation existed from God in Christ as the Holy
Spirit enabled man’s understanding. Departing from the Word, he held that revelation continues
today in individual experience. Barth extended the revisionist use of traditional theological
terms: adopting “Calvin’s terminology, but ascribing different meaning(s).”39 He held a “high
view of God,” but “retained liberal views concerning higher criticism.”40 Neo-Orthodoxy takes
the Bible more seriously than liberalism, but is fundamentally liberal theology that rejects the
deity of God and the inspiration of Scripture.41
The Theology of Paul Tillich
Paul Tillich (1886-1965), called “the theologian’s theologian,”42 acknowledged that
religion is universally human, but stated that his theology “differs from what is usually called
religion since it does not describe religion as the belief in the existence of gods or one God.”43
While he correctly stated that the Bible needs to be interpreted, his method rejected the
inspiration and authority of the Word. He claimed to “stand on the boundary between liberalism
and neo-orthodoxy,”44 where the symbols of Christianity “have no meaning whatsoever,”
because of the reality of science, yet may serve to mediate between God and man.45 He spoke as
____________________
36 Ibid., Enns, 603.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid., 606.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid., 607.
41 Ibid., 603.
42 Ibid., 612.
43 Paul Tillich, The Essential Tillich: An Anthology of the Writings of Paul Tillich, “The Lost Dimension in Religion,” The Saturday Evening Post 230, 50 (June 1958): 29, 76, 78-79), ed. F. Forrester Church, (NY: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987), 1.
44 Ibid., Enns, 612.
45 Paul Tillich, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 211.
7
a Christian, acknowledging God, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit; he quoted Scripture. As he
conjoined them in theological terms, he rejected their orthodox meanings. “God is the answer to
the question implied in man’s finitude; he is the name for that which concerns man ultimately. . .
(although) this does not mean that there is a being called God.”46 The relevance of traditional
theological language, or even the plain meaning of words, is discarded in favor of relativistic
expressionism as the theologian rejects his biblical roots: “Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or
one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled (Matt 5:18 KJV).
Theological Presuppositions
Tillich paraphrases Paul: “To the idealists , I have become as one of themselves, to win
those who are idealists, although I am not an idealist myself” (cf. 1 Cor 9: 20).47 His
interpretation is much different than Paul’s: “The theologian uses idealism, its concepts and
methods. He becomes a Platonist to the Platonists, a Stoics to the Stoics, an Hegelian to the
Hegelians, a progressivist to the progressivists . . . but he never imposes his preferred form upon
others in the name of Christianity”48 He shuns “kerygmatic,” or unchangeable truth, in favor of
an “apologetic” method that is relativistic.49 Tillich melds orthodox theological language and
rationalism into a theology that is not what it appears to be:
Theology does not exist outside the community of those who affirm that Jesus is the Christ, outside the Church, the assembly of God. Theology is a work of the church, precisely because it is a gift of the Divine Spirit . . . Theology expresses the faith of the Church. It restates the paradoxical statement, ‘Jesus is the Christ,’ and considers all its presuppositions and implications.”50
Theology Proper
His opinion of God is a distortion of Scripture: “Luther’s God, who acts heroically and
____________________
46 Ibid., Systematic, 211.
47 Ibid., Shocking, 153.
48 Paul Tillich, The Shaking of the Foundations, (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1948), 120.
49 Ibid., Systematic, 6-7.
50 Ibid., Shaking, 120.
8
without rules—is He not the wasteful God who creates and destroys in order to create again?”51
Rejecting God’s communicating grace, he asks: “would you really want a God to make your
decisions for you? The Lord . . . wants you to decide for yourself.52 Rejecting the Bible as the
inspired Word of the biblical God (cf. 2 Tim 3:16), Tillich creates his own god who “does not
‘exist,’ but is a ‘power’ or ‘ground’ or ‘depth’ of being that allows beings to be.”53 Miming
aspects of the biblical God, his is omnipresent (cf. Ps 139:7-10) and is a “power,” but not a
divine Person: “God is being itself, rather than a being, there is no place to which we could flee
from God which is outside God.”54 Tillich’s “appropriation of the hermeneutical assumptions”
have spawned “a whole range of academic enterprises” that are identified as “religion,”
relegating Christianity to par with all of the world’s religions.55 This critical juncture in
conservative theology is made manifest by the integration of theology into the umbrella of
schools of religion, elevating comparative religion, anthropology, and philosophy above
theology,56 and blurring the boundaries between God and the gods, attempting to make the “word
of God of none effect through your tradition, which ye have delivered: and many such like things
do ye” (Mark 7:13).
Hamartiology
For Tillich, the fall of man was not a historical event (cf. Gen 3), but “a non-temporal
___________________
51 Ibid., New, 48.
52 Ibid., 119.
53 Richard Grigg, Beyond the God Delusion: How Radical Theology Harmonizes Science & Religion, (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2008), 59-60.
54 Ibid., Shaking, 40.
55 Tomoko Masuzawa, Critical Terms for Religious Studies, ed. Mark C. Taylor, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998), 80.
56 Thomas J. Altizer, Thomas J. J., and William Hamilton, Radical Theology and the Death of God, (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1954), 3.
9
transition from essence to existence;” a “disruption of the essential unity with God,” the god who
is a power, not a person.57 Religion is not a “special function of man’s spiritual life, but the
dimension of depth in all its functions.”58 “Estrangement” is “man’s existential situation,” yet it
“cannot replace sin,” although it needs to because of the theological misuse of the word: sin is “a
quasi-personal power which ruled this world,” but has been wrongly used to mean “deviations
from moral laws.”59 With no personal god, no absolute values, and religion itself but a “special
function,” his use of the word “sin” has no relationship with that of traditional theology (cf. Rom
5:12).
Soteriology
Salvation “is certainly not what popular imagination has made of it, escaping from hell
and being received in heaven, in what is badly called ‘the life hearafter.’”60 He states that,
contrary to an evangelical understanding, based upon the NT, “eternal life is not a continuation
of life after death. Eternal life is beyond past, present and future: we come from it, we live in
its presence, we return to it. It is never absent . . . we are mortal like every creature.”61 Salvation
without a personal god is also described in non-traditional terms by Tillich: it is found in the
“ultimate concern” of the “New Being” as seen in Christ the man because He “evidenced real
concern.”62 Tillich’s “ultimate concern” is that primary concern of man above all else that can
only be satisfied in his Christ-who-is-not-Christ, but only an idea, a concept.63 In common with
other neo-theologians, he diligently, even desperately, seeks the peace and security of salvation
offered by the death and resurrection of Jesus the Christ, Son of the living God, while rejecting
the absolute reality and efficacy of God, in favor of creations of his mind. We might remember
that Nietzsche, cited earlier propounding his “God is dead” philosophy, died insane, captive to
____________________
57 Ibid., Enns, 612.
58 Paul Tillich, Theology of Culture, ed. Robert C Kimball, (NY: Oxford University Press, 1959), 7-8.
59 Ibid., Systematic, Vol. 2, 44-47.
60 Paul Tillich, The Eternal Now, (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1963). 114.
61 Ibid.
62 Ibid., Enns, 612.
63 Ibid., Culture, 7-8.
10
his own rejection of God.64 Like Nietzsche, Tillich’s language shows an inability to escape his
own knowledge of the God-who-is, who in some inexplicable way “lighteth every man that
cometh into the world” (John 1:9). While completely rejecting the God of creation, he constantly
returns to biblical language to describe his god-who-is-not-God.
Christology
Rather profoundly, Tillich states: “The Christ had to suffer and die, because whenever the
divine appears in all Its depth, It cannot be endured by men.65 He clarifies this statement:
We long for a Christ of power. Yet if He were to come and transform us and our world, we
should have to pay the one price which we could not pay: we would have to lose our freedom,
our humanity, and our spiritual dignity.66 Jesus Christ is, to Tillich, a non-person, a “symbol of
the ‘New Being’ in which every force of estrangement trying to dissolve his unity with God has
been dissolved.”67 Like Festus, Tillich’s god has no incarnation, death, and resurrection as does
God the Son: “Moses did say this day should come: that Christ should suffer, and that he should
be the first that should rise from the dead, and should shew light unto the people, and unto the
Gentiles . . . Festus said . . . Paul, thou art beside thyself; much learning doth make the mad”
(Acts 26:22b-24).68
Pneumatology
“It is the work of the Spirit,” Tillich says, “that removes God from our sight.”69
Discussing Romans 8: 1-16, 26-27, Tillich noted that, although Paul considered words like
“spirit, flesh, sin, law, life, and death” as expressions of the “most concrete experience of his
life,” that they appear to him as philosophical abstractions.70 He concludes that the Spirit is
Christ and Christ is the Spirit, and both constitute the new reality in which a Christian
____________________
64 Ibid., Beyond, vi.
65 Ibid., Shaking, 147.
66 Ibid., 148.
67 Ibid., Enns, 612.
68 Ibid.
69 Ibid., Eternal, 88.
70 Ibid., Shaking, 132.
11
participates. Sounding quite orthodox, he states that, “To be a Christian means to have the Spirit,
and any description of Christianity must be a description of the manifestation of the Spirit.71
His explanation clarifies his non-orthodox assumptions: “in speaking of our spirit, he (Paul)
acknowledges the creativity of man, his similarity to God Who is Spirit, his ability to be free
himself, and to liberate all nature, from the vanity and the bondage of corruption by his own
liberation.”72
Conclusion
Paul Tillich is representative of an enigma within the theological community: the non-
Christian theologian who uses the title and language of orthodox theology while departing from
biblical values, establishing man as the ultimate Source. Acknowledging the Bible as the
“original document about the events on which Christianity is based,” he rejects it as the sole
Source.73 His desire to address the concerns of modern society is commendable. His rejection of
Scripture leaves him nothing but his own mind to solve his world’s problems resulting in an
inevitable distortion of God’s message. While clinging to the title “theology,” his work is a
parody. Erickson, expanding his definition of Christian theology, said that it is:
the discipline that strives to give a coherent statement of the doctrines of the Christian faith, based primarily on the Scriptures, placed in the context of culture in general, worded in contemporary idiom, and related to the issues of life: it is biblical; it is systematic; it is related to issues of culture and learning; it is contemporary; it is practical.74
Tillich, as other philosophical theologians, fails the first requirement. Making the Bible
irrelevant, he sought freedom from the person of the God “I AM” in his nebulous concept of the
god, “I am,” but to no avail: self was but a poor reflection, and proved no less a taskmaster than
the God he would escape. He was confined by the limitations of language: even replacing the
plain meaning of words with his own, he could never escape the reality of the God who gave
mankind language. His theology was systematic. Tillich presented his arguments logically and
____________________
71 Ibid., Shaking, 132.
72 Ibid.
73 Ibid., Systematic Vol. 1, 34-40.
74 Ibid., Erickson, 8.
12
plainly. It was said that he was hard to read.75 Yet his work has a captivating quality,
engendering appreciation at one phrase, and anger at another. He did not write to be loved or
even appreciated: he was driven. He was alone in a crowd; accompanied by Nietzsche, Locke,
Kant, Hegel, Schleiermacher, Kierkegaard, Barth, and so many more. More will follow. He
addressed contemporary culture and education at the expense of a diminished view of God
and His Word, relying upon contemporary culture,76 as interpreted by individual experience.77
In the spirit of the Enlightenment and its theological offspring, he addressed the man-
centric now, creating theology to fit his concept of experience and science. His theology was not
realistic. Given the reality of God and the certainty of eternity, his path led followers away from
“the way, the truth, and the life” (John 14:6).
His “ultimate concern” displaces God:78 it is but a reiteration with variations of Nietzsche
and the various neo-theologies since; his was only a moment in the ongoing quest for any-god-
but-God. His theological language is superficially traditional, but radically non-orthodox. He,
and his contemporaries, use the language of conventional theology to describe their new,
acceptable god; a god who loves everyone, condemns no one, and lets well-enough alone. His
god is rather superfluous since biblical concepts of eternity, sin, and salvation do not exist in real
terms. His theology, well intentioned, carefully conceived and crafted, failing to provide the
necessary elements for man to know and interact with his God; certainly not to find salvation in
the blood of the Lamb.
“Unbelievers can write and study theology, but a believer has a dimension and
perspective on the truth of God that no unbeliever can have. The deep things of the Spirit are
taught by the Spirit, whom the unbeliever does not have” (1 Cor 2:10-16).79 Sound biblical
teaching includes warnings of spurious and dangerous diversions from His truth (Matt 24:11-12).
Orthodox theologians and teachers must be bold and careful in their proclamation of the Word.
____________________
75 Ibid., Essential, xi.
76 Ibid., Systematic Vol. 1, 36-38.
77 Ibid., 40-46.
78 Ibid., 238-39.
79 Ibid., Ryrie, 18.
13
Selected Bibliography
Altizer, Thomas J. and William Hamilton. Radical Theology and the Death of God. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1954.
Balmer, Randall, and Lauren F. Winner. Protestantism in America. NY: Columbia University Press, 2002.
Bouma, Jeremy. “The Gospel According to Paul Tillich; On the Human Condition,” Theology, 24 August 2011: 1, accessed 10 April 2017, http://www.jeremybouma.com/the-gospel-according-to-paul-tillich-on-the-human-condition-sin-2/.
Berkhof, Louis. Systematic Theology, New Combined Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: 1996.
Caputo, John D. Philosophy and Theology. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2006.
Enns, Paul. The Moody Handbook of Theology, Revised and Expanded. Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2014.
Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology, 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013.
Grigg, Richard. Beyond the God Delusion: How Radical Theology Harmonizes Science & Religion. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2008.
Hyman, Gavin. The Predicament of Postmodern Theology: Radical Orthodoxy or Nihilist Textualism? Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001.
Masuzawa, Tomoko. Critical Terms for Religious Studies, ed. Mark C. Taylor. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998).
Mueller, S.J., et al. Theological Foundations: Concepts and Methods for Understanding Christian Faith. Winona, MN: St. Mary’s Press, 2007.
Niebuhr, H. Richard. Radical Monotheism and Western Culture: With Supplementary Essays. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1960.
Nietzsche, Friedrich. Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future, Trans. Helen Zimmerman. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1997.
Ryrie, Charles. Basic Theology: A Popular Systematic Guide to Understanding Biblical Truth. Colorado Springs, CO: 1981.
Tillich, Paul. The Essential Tillich: An Anthology of the Writings of Paul Tillich, ed. F. Forrester Church. NY: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987.
___. The Eternal Now. NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1963.
___. The New Being. NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1955.
___. The Shaking of the Foundations. NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1948.
___. Systematic Theology, Vol. 1 & 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951.
___. Theology of Culture, ed. Robert C Kimball. NY: Oxford University Press, 1959.
Van Buren, Paul M. The Secular Meaning of the Gospel. NY: The Macmillan Company, 1963.
Vahanian, Gabriel. The Death of God: The Culture of our Post-Christian Era. NY: George Braziller, 1961

Paul’s Prayer in Colossians 1:9-11

LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
Exegesis of Colossians 1:9—14: Paul’s Prayer in 1:9-11
Submitted to Dr. Walter Davis
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of
RTCH 500-B4
Summer 2017
Research, Writing, and Ministry Preparation
by
Robert Beanblossom
27 June 2017
ii
Contents
Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………….…..….1
Context ……………………………………………………………………………………………2
General Considerations ……………………………………………………………………3
Authorship …………………………………………………………………………3
Date and Place of Writing …………………………………………………………4
Destination ……………………………………………………………………..…5
Occasion …………………………………………………………………………..6
Purpose ……………………………………………………………………………7
Geo-Historical Context: The Lycus Valley ca. AD 40-70 ………………………………..8
The Text in Context: Paul’s Epistle to the Christians at Colosse ………………………..10
Paul’s Prayer: Colossians 1:9-14 ………………………………………………………….10
Meaning …………………………………………………………………………………………11
Be Filled …………………………………………………………………………………12
Walk Worthy and Pleasing ………………………… …………………………..………15
Be Strengthened …………………………………………………………………………17
Significance: Colossians for Today’s Christian ………………………….………………..…20
Salvation: The Beginning ……………………………………………………………….20
Growth: Be Equipped ……………………………………………………………………20
Relationship: Walk Worthy ……………………………………………………………..21
Conclusion ..…………………………………………………………….………………….……22
Bibliography ………………………………………………………….…………………….……23
Appendix ………………………………………………………………………………..………25
1
Introduction
Paul wrote a letter in behalf of “God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ” (Col 1:2)1 to the Christians at Colosse to encourage them and to give them doctrinal and practical tools to combat false teaching known today as the Colossian Heresy.2 Paul had never been to Colosse, but had started the church vicariously through Epaphras (Col 1:7; 4:12-13), possibly a convert from his Ephesian ministry. Rather than attack the false teachers or their doctrine, Paul extoled the “Person of Christ as the one absolute mediator between God and man, the true and only reconciler of heaven and earth,”3 or, as Ironside described, “Christ as the Head of the body,” the head of His church.4 The Apostle not only represented God, but interceded with Him on their behalf, “praying always” for them (Col 1:3) that they would be filled with the knowledge of His will, walk worthy of the Lord, and be strengthened according to His power (Col 1:9-11). This recurrent Pauline theme (cf. Eph 4:1; 1 Thess 2:12), suggests authenticity.
The following study reveals that a relationship with God is more than the one-time event of salvation: it is a developing relationship based upon increasing knowledge about God and walking worthy in Him and through Him as we mature in spiritual strength and understanding; both demanded and enabled by God. The prayer is in two parts, first for what they need (1:9-11), and second for what they have received (1:12-14). We will consider the Apostle’s intended message in the first part and its application for Christians today.
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1 All Scripture is from the King James Version of the Bible unless otherwise noted.
2 J. B. Lightfoot, Saint Paul’s Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon; A Revised Text, (1892; rpr., Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1959), 73
3 Ibid., 114.
4 H. A. Ironside, An Ironside Expository Commentary: Philippians and Colossians, (1920; rpr., Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic and Professional, 2007), 108.
2
We will utilize Greek-English resources to provide knowledge and authority that we lack in that area, including Strong’s Concordance5 and Marshall’s Interlinear KJV-NIV Parallel New Testament in Greek and English6 to develop a working understanding of the literal Greek of the Received Text. The overall method will be based upon an abbreviated form of the conservative Syntactical-Theological method described by William Kaiser, Jr., and Moises Silva in their Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics7 that recognizes the preeminence of the Word. The authority of the text results from the Holy Spirit directing the inspired writer: our job is to “grasp the truth the author intended to convey.”8 First, the geo-historical context of Colosse in ca. 60 AD will be reviewed, then the entire letter will be used to establish the context; and finally, the prayer itself will be explored, seeking Paul’s message for those Christians. The prayer as understood from the research will be used to develop an application for Christians toady.
Context
The Epistle to the Colossians is one of four letters written by Paul as a Roman prisoner, either from house arrest in Ephesus, from which he was later released, or from Rome, that ended with his execution. As in his letter to the Philippians (Phil 1:1), Paul associated the letter with his young protégé Timothy (Col 1:1). “It is noticeable how, in many of his letters, the apostle links
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5 James Strong, The New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1996).
6 Alfred Marshall, ed., The Interlinear KJV-NIV Parallel New Testament in Greek and English (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1975).
7 Kaiser, Walter C., and Moises Silva, An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics; the Search for Meaning (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994), 35-46.
8 Ibid., 45.
3
up younger and less experienced fellow laborers with himself, as here, in his salutations. . . . In his care for the development of the younger brethren, Paul becomes a model for older teachers, and evangelists to the end of the dispensation.”9 This is not incidental to Paul’s purpose but part of his growth plan for young Christians, an example for us founded upon Jesus’ walk with His disciples.
General Considerations
Authorship
The epistle states explicitly that it is from “Paul, an apostle of Jesus Christ by the will of God, and Timotheus our brother” (1:1), and concludes with a “salutation by the hand of me Paul” (4:18a). Some scholarly discussion exists today that questions the Pauline authorship. The position is without consensus or a reasonable substitute.10 Carson, et al., summarize an evangelical position that holds that the “the actual authorship of the letter does not matter.”11 Ironside unequivocally presupposes divinely inspired Pauline authorship.12 Of these representative positions, only Ironside upholds the Scripture-based conservative Christian position of the inerrancy and divine inspiration of Scripture (1 Tim 3:16). If Paul is not the author as the epistle claims, the inspiration of this letter, therefore the Canon as a whole, is open to question. Therefore, Pauline authorship as claimed in 1:1, is accepted.
____________________
9 Ironside, Expository, 19.
10 D. A. Carson, Douglas Moo, and Leon Morris, An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 331-332.
11 Ibid., 338.
12 Ironside, Expository, 107.
4
Paul states that Tychicus (4:7-9) and Onesimus (4:9), known to be his companions (cf. Eph 6, Phil 1), took the Colossian and Philemon letters to their destinations. Conjuncture abounds, but some suggest that Paul’s “thorn in the flesh” (2 Cor 12:7), was a problem with his vision that affected his ability to write (cf. Gal 4:15). Under this theory, his solution was to use trusted scribes, or amanuenses, to record his dictation as he did here (4:18). This suggests that his common closing, in which he noted that his signature was quite distinctive (cf. Gal 6:11), was also his means of authentication. The actual nature of his “thorn” is but speculation derived from scripture. The scope of this paper prevents further commentary. Pauline authorship is accepted.
Date and Place of Writing
Accepting Paul as the author, two limited periods between AD 51 and Paul’s death in 67 are suggested for the date of this letter and Philemon, considered to be two of four prison epistles that also include Ephesians and Philippians. Paul mentions his bonds but does not discuss his specific location. “When he wrote the letter, Paul was in prison (Col 4:3, 10, 18).13 Opinions differ on which prison period this was. For Carson, et al., “It is probable that Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon were written from the same place. The personal links with Philemon
. . . are clear evidence that Colossians and Philemon were written at much the same time, while the case for Ephesians rests on the general similarities to Colossians,” but concede that a lack of personal links may indicate that it was written from a different place.14 The early date would be during the reign of Claudius (51-54). Since he did not mention governmental persecution, this is possible. The late date would be during the reign of Nero (54-68), who initiated extensive
____________________
13 Carson, Introduction, 334.
14 Ibid.
5
persecution of Christians, blaming them for the fire that razed Rome in 64. If during Nero’s reign, no noted persecution suggests a window of 54 to 63. Thomas Constable suggests that “Paul probably wrote this epistle from Rome, toward the middle or end of his first house arrest there, between 60 and 62 . . . . This view of the letter’s origin generally fits the facts better than the Caesarean and Ephesian theories of origin.”15 “Objections to . . . (other) centers leave us with Rome . . . . “We cannot say that any center is strongly favored by the evidence, but perhaps a little more can be said for Rome than for anywhere else.”16 We agree.
Destination
The primary destination was clearly the “saints and faithful brethren in Christ which are at Colosse” (1:2a). He included instructions to “cause it to be read also in the church of the Laodiceans” with the further note to share other epistles that were circulating, at least in the Lycus Valley (4:16). This argues against a view that isolates the inspired writers from communication with each other and with other Christians. “We are not surprised therefore to find them so closely connected in the earliest stages of Christianity.18 J.B. Lightfoot said that it was to this “least important church” that Paul addressed his epistle.19 This might add weight to the Roman theory: perhaps Paul, seeing his execution coming, developed a sense of urgency regarding several issues that he felt needed addressing, including concern over false teachings that were distracting and misleading a small band of Christians he had never met and never
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15 Thomas L. Constable, “Notes on Colossians, 2017 Edition,” accessed 30 May 2017, Published by Sonic Light: http://www.soniclight.com/http://www.soniclight.com/constable/notes/pdf/colossians.pdf., 3.
16 Carson, Introduction, 335.
17 Lightfoot, Epistles, 23-30.
18 Ibid., 2.
19 Ibid., 16.
6
would, and the very personal letter of Philemon. This is but a thought; there is no documentation to substantiate it.
Occasion
Paul was neither the founder of the Colossian church (2:1), nor did he ever visit it. Epaphras, “our dear fellowservant, who is for you (the Colossians) a faithful minister of Christ,” was the founder and pastor of this church (1:7), and possibly for each of the tri-city churches (4:13).20 Some suggest that he had been recently converted under Paul, possibly at Ephesus, although this is conjecture. He had come to Paul to support him in prison (1:7), to bring him good news of the spiritual condition of the church (1:7-9), and to secure Paul’s advice concerning false teachers who were plaguing the church: the enduring portion of that advise is this epistle. “The two main problems were the misunderstood doctrine of Christ, and the misunderstanding of how this doctrine affects Christian living.”21 Carson, et al., observes that the precise nature of the false teachings, described today as the Colossian Heresy, is unknown.22 Lightfoot infers the “presence of two disturbing elements which threatened the purity of Christian faith and practice in this community.”23 He finds both the presence of Judaic legalism and elements of theosophic speculation, both “alien to the spirit of Judaism proper.”24 After further investigation and evaluation, he concludes that the “epistle itself contains no hint that the Apostle has more than
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20 Renchi Arce, “Exegetical Study of Collossians [sic.] 1:9-11.” 2001. Accessed 15 May 2017. https://www.academia.edu/200183/Exegetical_Study_of_Colossians_1_9-11. Academemia.edu., 3.
21 Constable, “Notes,” 3.
22 Carson, Introduction, 335.
23 Lightfoot, Epistles, 73.
24 Ibid.
7
one set of antagonists in view . . . . Nor indeed does the hypothesis of a single complex heresy present any real difficulty . . . (since) some special tendencies among the Jews themselves . . . prepared the way for such a combination in a Christian community like the church at Colosse.”25
Lightfoot argues that, “the Apostle’s language hardly leaves the question open. The two elements are so closely interwoven in his refutation, that it is impossible to separate them. He passes backwards and forwards from one to the other in such a way as to show that they are only parts of one complex whole.”26 While his opinion may not be universal, even among evangelical theologians, it is consistent with Scripture and adequate for our purposes. We will accept this premise since our focus is Paul’s response rather than the specific heresy.
Purpose
Paul’s epistle to the Christians at Colosse had a three-fold purpose: (1) to communicate his love and concern for vibrant young Christians whom he would never meet; (2) to counteract the work of false teachers who had insinuated themselves into the congregation; and (3) to extol emphatically the supremacy of Jesus Christ, their eternal Savior and Sustainer:
Paul wanted to express his personal interest in this church, which he had evidently not visited. He wrote to warn the Colossians, first, of the danger of returning to their former beliefs and practices. Secondly, he also refuted the false teaching that was threatening this congregation. The outstanding Christian doctrine that this letter deals with is Christology. Thirdly, Paul’s great purpose was to set forth the absolute supremacy and sole sufficiency of Jesus Christ.27
Possibly anticipating the end of his earthly walk, Paul was intentional in exalting Christ above all
____________________
25 Lightfoot, Epistles, 75.
26 Ibid., 75.
27 Constable, “Notes,” 4.
8
else, the sole answer to sin, Satan, and subversive teachings of all sorts. He built upon the success and love of the Colossian Christians, encouraged their growth, and provided a universal solution for the false teachings that they and those who follow them face:
Its great purpose is to close the door of the Colossian church against the peculiar heretical teaching that had recently begun to knock for entrance. No entrance had as yet been effected, but there was danger that it might be gained. The burden of the letter thus consists of warning.28
The particular purpose for Colossians was to equip the congregation to overcome the assault on the young converts by false teachers: the Colossian Heresy. We will consider the letter in a geo-political sense, in the context of Paul’s message, and in the context of his prayer for those Christians in 1:9-11. It is assumed in this paper that Scripture is the inspired, inerrant, and complete Word of God through His select inspired authors.
The Geo-Historical Context: The Lycus Valley ca. AD 40-70
The text of Scripture is the primary authority that must be considered in any interpretation. However, all human communication since man was created exists in space and time: a historical context. After a lengthy discussion concerning attacks on historicity and objective reality in some modern scholarship, Walter C. Kaiser, et al., state that, “If meaning is to be held accountable to the criteria of truthfulness and veracity, it will need to set that text in the primary world of realities in which it purports to have happened.”29 We, therefore, will briefly
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28 Richard C. H. Lenski, The Interpretation of St. Paul’s Epistles to the Colossians, to the Thessalonians, to Timothy, to Titus and to Philemon (n.d.; rpr., Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1964), 17.
29 Kaiser, Hermeneutics, 137.
9
review some geographic and historical factors that impacted Paul and the Colossians at the time the letter was written.
“Lying in, or overhanging, the valley of the Lycus tributary of the Maeander (River) were three neighboring towns: Laodicea, Hierapolis and Colosse.”30 The cities of Laodicea and Hierapolis stood within six miles of each other on opposite shores of the river that ran through Colosse, upstream by ten or twelve miles.31 The cities were part of the Roman colonial system. Located on crossroads of important trade routes, the area was a producer in its own right, known for a particular black dyed wool.32 The area was known for its beauty: geologic activity gave it a surreal appearance as a peculiar calcareous coating reflected brightly in the sun.33 Earthquakes destroyed the tri-cities more than once. Adjustments to trade routes due to altered geography possibly caused a population shift that allowed the neighboring cities to rebuild and grow at the expense of Colosse.34 Strabo (64 BC-AD 24) wrote, somewhat earlier, that Colosse had been reduced to a small, but cosmopolitan, town.35 The population was primarily Greek colonists and native Phrygians, but included many Jews from the Diaspora.36 Religion reflected Greek and Roman influence as well as that of resident foreign traders and former Syrian rule.37
____________________
30 Lightfoot, Epistles, 1.
31 Ibid., 2.
32 Ibid., 22.
33 Ibid., 8.
34 Ibid., 22.
35 William Hendriksen, New Testament Commentary: Exposition of Philippians and Exposition of Colossians and Philemon, (n.d., rpr., Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979), 13.
36 Constable, “Notes,” 1.
37 Lightfoot, Epistles, 10-13.
10
The Text in Context: Paul’s Epistle to the Christians in Colosse
Paul’s opening remarks to the Colossian Christians include his typical salutation identifying himself and his current helper, Timotheus, a blessing and general prayer, and encouraging words, reminding them that they, as others of his flock, are constantly in his prayers (1:1-8). Next is a specific prayer for the Colossians (1:9-14). We will consider the first part in this paper (1:9-11). Following, and overlapping his prayer, is a discussion of the preeminence of Christ (1:13-23): in creation (1:13-20); in redemption (1:21-23); and in His church (1: 24-2:3).
Paul’s Prayer: Colossians 1:9-14
Paul’s prayer distinguishes between asking God for those things they need to grow, and praising Him for what they received at their salvation. The message is not new, but reminds these “saints” of what they have “heard before . . . the truth of the gospel; which is come unto you” (1:5b-6a). Overall, it presents Jesus Christ in God as the foundation of their salvation and the power to overcome all attacks on their faith and obstacles to the experience of their fulness in Him.
The Apostle again expresses his love and concern for the Colossian Christians by asserting that he “does not cease to pray” for them (1:9) as he told them in his introduction (1:3). Lucius R. Paige related this unceasing prayer to habitual prayer: Paul brought this church before God on a regular basis.10 In vs. 9-11 he seeks those specific blessings needed to further ground them in their faith and enable a maturing Christian walk. The remainder melds his discussion of the preeminence of Christ, with “thanks unto the Father” (1:12) for the foundational gifts they
____________________
38 Lucius R. Paige, A Commentary on the New Testament: From the Epistle to the Galatians to the Epistle of Jude (Boston: Universalist Publishing House, 1869), 6:78-79.
11
had already received as believers.
Meaning
“For this cause we also, since the day we heard it, do not to cease to pray for you . . .” (1:9a)
Writing with Apostolic authority and fatherly concern, Paul prays “for this cause” (1:9), where dia toutou39 “signifies a principle cause,” according to W. E. Vine, et al.40 That principle cause was a reminder of the bedrock of their faith. Marvin Vincent differentiates between Paul’s prayer and his desire, concluding that prayer is a general request, and desire is a special, or specific, request.41 His desire was that the Colossian Christians might be “filled” (1:9), that they might “walk” (1:10), and that they might be “strengthened” (1:11), all to establish them in the gospel of the all-sufficient Jesus Christ, to strengthen them against false teachings, and perhaps of persecution to come. Paul prayed for foundational growth, for a basic “faith in Christ Jesus, and of the love which ye have to all the saints, for the hope which is laid up for you in heaven” (1:3-5a). Ironside summarized Paul’s prayer: “He hath made us meet for the inheritance of the saints in light; He hath delivered us from the authority of darkness; He hath translated us into the kingdom of His love; and we have redemption through His blood.”42 The work of the Spirit in the church founded by Epaphras had produced faith, love, and hope, all in the right areas. Through their attention to and power of the Gospel, they had “brought forth fruit . . . since the day ye
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39 Strong, Exhaustive, G1223.
40 W. E. Vine, Merrill F. Unger and William White, Jr., Vines Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words with Topical Index, (Abingdon Press, 1890; rpr., Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1970), NT 99.
41 Marvin R. Vincent, Word Studies in the New Testament: The Epistles of Paul (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishing, 2009), 3:465.
42 Ironside, Expository, 127.
12
heard it, and knew the grace of God in truth” (1:6b). This was a joy to the Apostle and a testimony to the efficacy of the Holy Spirit in changing lives. Their testimony had reached him through his “fellow prisoner” and co-worker Epaphras, who was apparently evangelist and minister to the Lycus Valley Christians. Paul would later address his concern for their continued faithfulness “lest any man should beguile you with enticing words” (2:4). This first part of his prayer (1:9-11) was, then, for the spiritual tools to continue their walk steadfastly and victoriously in the light of the Gospel in the face of false teachers or coming persecution.
Be Filled
and to desire that ye might be filled with the knowledge of His will in all wisdom and spiritual understanding . . . (1:9b)
Paul petitions God on behalf of the Colossians that they might be “filled with the knowledge of his will in all wisdom and spiritual understanding” (Col 1:9). The filling [pleroo] Paul prayed for was exuberant, overflowing, complete and topped off.43 It was not static: overflowing requires movement as the contents spill over and flow outward, submerging all in its path, as the Gospel was doing through Christians such as these. This word was translated later in the epistle as complete: once assuring them that they “are complete [pleroo] in Him, which is the head of all principality and power” (2:10, emphasis author’s). Here we see shades of his earlier prison epistle to the Ephesians (cf. Eph 1:15-20), where he spoke of Jesus’ resurrection, as God “set Him at His own right hand in the heavenly places, far above all principality, and power, and might, and dominion . . .” (Eph 1:20-21). Using what Kaiser calls the analogy of scripture, where earlier Scripture supports later,44 and given the mandate to actively share the Colossian epistle
____________________
43 Strong, Exhaustive, G4137.
44 Kaiser, Hermeneutics, 240.
13
with the others in the Lycus valley (4:16), it is easy to believe that the Ephesian and Colossian epistles were also shared, giving additional context to Colossians. Since Paul’s missionary journeys ranged from about 1,500 miles to over 3,000 miles, the 120 miles separating Ephesus and the Lycus Valley churches were not prohibitive to interaction via the Roman roads. Neither time, distance, nor false teachers have been successful in limiting God or the development of His church.
In closing the epistle, he reminds the Colossians that Epaphras is “always laboring fervently for you in prayers, that ye may stand perfect and complete [pleroo] in all the will of God” (4:12, emphasis author’s). Paul’s prayer opens with the petition and assurance that what he seeks for them God will provide in sufficient measure to meet all of their needs, unchecked and unhindered by any other force. Vincent links the power of Paul’s prayer with Mark’s statement: “What things soever ye desire, when ye pray, believe that ye receive them, and ye shall have them” (Mk 11:24).45 He prays, not for an initial filling, for he says, “As ye have therefore received Christ Jesus the Lord, so walk ye in Him: rooted and built up in Him, and stablished in the faith, as ye have been taught” (2:6-7). Paul was evermore the Apostle of Action, putting his, and encouraging others to put their faith into Spirit-fueled action.
His God is neither in hiding, nor secretive. He seeks boldly to join the creature with his Creator in a working relationship, seeking and living in His will. Paul has already reminded them that this God is not a local deity, but the God whose gospel “is come into you, as it is in all the world” (1:6). This knowledge is both “full knowledge,” and a “perfection of knowledge of God in Christ.” Salvation through the gift of God annuls the effects of the law
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45 Vincent, Studies, 465.
14
while failure to accept the gift of God’s grace retains the curse of the law: “Therefore by the deeds of the law there shall no flesh be justified in His sight: for by the law is the knowledge of sin” (Rom 3:20).46
According to Paul, the God who is Spirit, can be known “with the knowledge of His will in all wisdom and spiritual understanding” (1:9b). This knowledge carries more than just a bit of data received and stored: Strong says that epignosis is, by implication, “full discernment.”47 This is an active knowledge, information that is accessible and able to be used, more than rote feedback, it is the foundation for “all wisdom and spiritual understanding” (1:9b). It is knowledge synthesized by faith into godly wisdom. It is wisdom that is spiritual understanding, where “understanding is the central apprehension of particulars growing out of wisdom” that is practically applied.48 Here we find that spiritual [pneumatikos]49 is emphatic in the Greek.50 Vine says that pneumatikos “always connotes the idea of invisibility and of power. It does not occur in the Septuagint nor in the gospels; it is in act an after-Pentecost word.”50 In this verse, he continues, it is “wisdom in, and understanding of . . . (of) which the burden is the things revealed by the Spirit.”51 This whole is synthesized as an imparted regenerate religious wisdom with the intellectual component driving a practical response, a synthesis of “Seek ye first (Matt 6:33a),” with “Go ye into all the world (Mark 15:15a)” through the “power of the Holy Ghost” (Rom 15:13c).
____________________
46 Vincent, Studies, 466.
47 Strong, Exhaustive, G1922.
48 Vincent, Studies, 467.
49 Strong, Exhaustive, 4152.
50 Vine, Dictionary, 594.
51 Ibid.
15
Walk Worthy and Pleasing
that ye might walk worthy of the Lord unto all pleasing, being fruitful in every good work, and increasing in the knowledge of God . . . (1:10)
Paul prays that they “might walk worthy of the Lord” (1:9a). Paige says that this walk includes “cherishing His Spirit” to the extent that one “obeys His precepts.”52 Vincent say that Paul’s desire anticipates that the Colossians would “please God in all ways.”53 Ironside relates this walk to three worthies: (1) “I therefore, the prisoner of the Lord, beseech ye that ye walk worthy of the vocation wherewith ye are called” (Eph 4:1); (2) “Only let your conversation be as it becometh the gospel of Christ” (Phil 1:27a); and (3) “that ye would walk worthy of God” (1 Thess 2:12),54 where worthy (including Col 1:9) and becometh are all the Greek axios which Strong’s amplifies: “as becometh after a godly sort.”55 The writer of Acts added, “that they were counted worthy to suffer shame for His name (Acts 5:41). Lightfoot suggests that the worthy walk produces the following attributes rather than being the product of those activities.56
The Greek areskeia, translated here as pleasing,57 is the only usage in the NT.58 Vine gives it the connotation of “a giving pleasure” whose purpose is a “Godward . . . walk worthy of the Lord.”59 Ironside, citing Griffith Thomas, notes that it is used elsewhere in Greek literature as
____________________
52 Paige, Commentary, 789.
53 Vincent, Studies, 465.
54 Ironside, Expository, 123.
55 Strong, Exhaustive, G516.
56 Lightfoot, Epistles, 139.
57 Strong, Exhaustive, G699.
58 Ironside, Expository, 123.
59 Vine, Dictionary, 474.
16
“a preference of the will of theirs before our own,”60 as Paul admonishes the Colossians to please God by adopting His will at the expense of their own.
Ironside reads the phrase translated in KJV as “being fruitful in every good work,” as better rendered, “bearing fruit in every good work.61 He includes the connotation that the duty for Christian service is not “simply preaching the gospel, teaching the Holy Scriptures, or engaging in what is sometimes called Christian activity or church work. We are very prone to do this and to distinguish between secular employment and sacred.”62 The Greek karpophoreo, fruitful,63 and ergon, work,64 are good, literal translations in the KJV according to Vine, holding their intended sense today.65 Joseph Thayer suggests that karpophoreo includes the nuance “to bear fruit of one’s self,”66 while ergon suggests “every good work springing from piety.”67 We might conclude, by integrating the complementary thoughts of Vine ad Thayer, that Paul’s message encompasses a desire for the Colossian Christians to understand that their fruit is the result of a walk that is submissive and obedient to the Holy Spirit, “Being filled with the fruits of righteousness, which are by Jesus Christ, unto the glory and praise of God (Phil 1:11).
Vincent suggests that the KJV translation of epignosis, “with the knowledge,”68 might
____________________
60 Ironside, Expository, 123.
61 Ironside, Expository, 123.
62 Ibid.
63 Strong, Exhaustive, G2592.
64 Ibid., G2041.
65 Vine, Dictionary, 257, 684.
66 Joseph H. Thayer, Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament; Coded with Strong’s Concordance Numbers, (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1896), 326.
67 Ibid., 248.
68 Strong, Exhaustive, G1922.
17
better be rendered as “by the knowledge,”69 suggesting that the increase in the “worthy walk” is the result of God’s grace, not the result of our efforts (cf. Acts 20:32). Vine expands this to describe “’an exact or full knowledge, discernment, recognition’. . . expressing a full ‘knowledge’ (that is) a greater participation by the ‘knower’ in the object ‘known,’ thus more powerfully influencing him.”70 Lightfoot wrote, “The simple instrumental dative represents the knowledge of God as the dew or the rain which nurtures the growth of the plant; not only showing the fruits of your faith before men (Matt 7:16), but yourselves growing meanwhile in moral stature (Eph 4:13).”71 The walk [peripateo] that Paul demands is a walk that additionally yields proof of ability, following as a companion, as involved in an occupation, according to Strong.72 This walk is a trek filled with grand sights, hardships, victories, and joy rather than a superficial trip to the mailbox to see what God has in store for the moment. It is submersion in God’s will and supporting grace. The language is powerful and motivating, intended to rally these Christians around the risen Savior who is both the object of their loyalty and service, and the ultimate source of their strength: joy now and to come.
Be Strengthened
strengthened with all might, according to His glorious power, unto all patience and longsuffering with joyfulness (1:11)
Paul concludes his list of requests for Christian growth, asking that the Colossians be
____________________
69 Vincent, Studies, 465.
70 Vine, Dictionary, 348.
71 Lightfoot, Epistles, 139.
72 Strong, Exhaustive, G4043.
18
“strengthened [dunamoo]73 with all might [dunamis].”74 This is the only NT use of dunamoo, to enable, although it is used in the Septuagint.75 The combination of dunamoo with dunamis (a miraculous power) emphasizes source of that power that follows, “His glorious power.” Lightfoot points out that kratos,76 the word Paul selected for power, in the “NT is applied solely to God.”77 “God’s revelation of Himself to us,” he continues, “however this revelation may be made, is the one source of all our highest strength.”78 Paul learned to not rely on his own strength. His conversion humbled him before his God, leaving this militant Pharisee, who robustly persecuted the Christians, helpless and in the care of the very Christians he sought to destroy (Acts 9:3-9). Paul struggled with an unspecified infirmity, praying twice to have this impediment removed, believing that his Apostolic performance would be enhanced. God again brought him to his knees, teaching that man’s strength is in submission to God (2 Cor 12:7-10). In submission, he went on to serve in spite of being “thrice beaten with rods, once I was stoned, thrice I suffered shipwreck, a night and a day I have been in the deep,” and much more, all without murmur (2 Cor 11:24-26). Paige observes that Paul had learned to “rely on a higher strength than his own . . . (and) prayed for the Colossians to have that same strength.”79
Ironside suggests that we might suppose that “all this manifestation of divine energy would result in producing some great outward display that would astonish and amaze an
____________________
73 Ibid., G1412.
74 Ibid., G1411.
75 Vincent, Studies, 466.
76 Strong, Exhaustive, G2904.
77 Lightfoot, Epistles, 140.
78 Ibid.
79 Paige, Commentary, 79.
19
unbelieving world.”80 But that was neither God’s intent or Paul’s prayer. Instead, he prayed that they would receive “strength unto all patience and longsuffering with joyfulness” (1:11). Jamieson, et al. brings patience into context: “so as to attain . . . (to patience) in the faith, in spite of trials of persecutors and seductions of false teachers.”81 The call is to be witnesses to His Gospel, not to reform the world. The Apostle was not satisfied with a mundane life of marginal effectiveness and self-satisfaction, either for himself or for his converts. He told the Galatians that “the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, longsuffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance . . . If we live in the Spirit, let us also walk in the Spirit.” (excerpted Gal 5:22-25). He told the Ephesians that their walk must be “with all lowliness and meekness, with longsuffering . . .” (Eph 4:2a), calling for them to “walk worthy in their vocation” (Eph 4:1b) with hardships endured in “longsuffering with joyfulness” (1:11). He followed the lead of Moses, who told the Israelites that, “The LORD is longsuffering, and of great mercy, forgiving iniquity and transgression . . .” (Num 14:18).
Vincent declared that Paul’s joyfulness included the construction, “in every good work being fruitful: with all power strengthened: with every joy giving thanks . . .(since) joyful suffering expresses itself in thanksgiving.”82 Ironside notes that joy in tribulation is “something that the natural man knows nothing of—joy in the time of trial; gladness in the time of hardship; songs in the night, though the darkness be overwhelming; praises to God of my salvation when nature shrinks and trembles.”83
____________________
80 Ironside, Expository, 125.
81 Robert Jamieson, A. R. Fausset, and David Brown, A Commentary on the Old and New Testaments (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2008), 3:440.
82 Vincent, Studies, 466.
83 Ironside, Expository, 125.
20
God’s power for the Christian is in patience that encompasses and develops endurance and constancy while waiting, with longsuffering, or fortitude and patience, with joyfulness, to the point of exceeding joyfulness. It is the power of the army of God, trained, equipped, and following divine orders as it moves in en-masse through battle to victory.
Significance: Colossians for Today’s Christian
Salvation: The Beginning
Paul’s wrote his epistle to the Christians at Colosse who were faithfully serving their Lord, secure in the knowledge of their salvation: “To the saints and faithful brethren in Christ which are at Colosse . . .”(1:2). Without this experience, this beginning, the journey toward Christian maturity is impossible. Drawing from Isaiah (Is 29:14), Matthew wrote, “You will be ever hearing but never understanding; you will be ever seeing but never perceiving” (Matt 13:14).
Growth: Be Equipped
Paul could well have brought this prayer before the Lord today on behalf of the Gentile church in the United States, in Tennessee, in my own town. Christianity faces increasing hostility from non-Christians in America as 240 years of Judeo-Christian values are being replaced by relativistic assumptions as their usefulness and authority are discarded as outdated and irrelevant. The autonomy of the church is under attack. Constitutional protection is being reinterpreted in a reversal of the intention of the founding fathers and historical application.
The Christian today needs a revitalized and reinforced toolbox of foundational values and empowerment to move forward in God’s personal call for worship and witnessing and the corporate mandate for the church. Christianity, as in the first century, is again requiring an intentional declaration with consequences as passivity and spectatorship loose their social appeal.
21
Paul’s prayer in Colossians 1:9-11 includes those tools that will assure that the will of God prevails through each Christian in contemporary society in the face of world-wide persecution as it approaches the Christian in America. He prays for a back-to-basics approach for the Christian-on-the-street, not the leadership alone, but for every Christian in every walk of life. Prayer, and the power requested for submissive Christians, is as effective today as it was for the Colossians in the first century.
Relationship: Walk Worthy
For Paul, the basic equipment for the Christian (be filled, walk worthy and pleasing, be strengthened), is not for a defensive stand, but to mount the offense that began in the First Century (Matt 28:19) and continues today. He sees these as a cycle of growth that is pleasing to God. This is not done on our own strength, but through the dunamoo of the power of God, resulting in patience and longsuffering, both with joy. This is achieved, not only by observing the words of Paul, but the methods of Paul: he prayed and he witnessed, both constantly. Emulating Paul by “praying always, we tap into the kratos of the Creator of the universe: “Prayer is the divine telephone of communication. It lines us up to Christ, and helps us to be sensitive to His Spirit and the needs of others. God gives us a complete understanding, in His own time, what he wants us to do with our lives.”84
____________________
72 Richard Krejcir, 2008. “Into Thy Word: Colossians 1:9-14.” Accessed 15 May 2017, npn., http://www.intothyword.org/apps/articles/default.asp?articleid=50857& columnid=3803. Into Thy Word Ministries.
22
Conclusion
Paul was converted from the physically militant zealous Pharisee who sought out and executed Christians, to a Christian militant, with a significant difference: his allegiance and zeal were transferred from his perception of the law of Moses to the person of the Lord Jesus Christ, his Savior; his methodology and teachings emulated his Master. His physical and political arsenals were replaced with the far more powerful and effective Word of God. The Christian life is not static, not fixed at salvation: Paul joins Luke: I want you first and foremost, to emulate Jesus; to increase in “wisdom, and stature, and in favor with God and man” (Luke 2:52). Christ, Paul concludes, is supreme, complete, and sufficient in every way (2 Cor 12:9). Paul called for a developing relationship with the Lord of Lords: He who “strengthened with all might [dunamoo en pas dunamis]”, bringing Paul forth as new creature in Him, and every Christian since (2 Cor 5:17), pleasing in worship and powerful in service. The power of Acts 2 may be manifested somewhat differently today, but the Source of that power is no less than it was on the day of creation, with Moses and the children as they faced the might of Egypt, with Joshua and the children as they surrounded Jericho, or on the day that He saved my soul from eternal damnation (Heb 13:8). The command has never changed from Adam to this moment: follow me, obey me, have fellowship with me (John 14:6): walk worthy of Me (1:10). The result will never change: obedience leads to an eternity with Him; “my way,” any way but His way, leads to eternal damnation (Rom 6:23).
23
Bibliography
Arce, Renchi. “Exegetical Study of Collossians [sic.] 1:9-11.” (2001). Accessed 15 May 2017. https://www.academia.edu/200183/Exegetical_Study_of_Colossians_1_9-11. Academemia.edu.
Carson, D. A., Douglas J. Moo, and Leon Morris. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992.
Constable, Thomas L. “Notes on Colossians, 2017 Edition.” Accessed 30 May 2017. Published by Sonic Light: http://www.soniclight.com/http://www.soniclight.com/constable/
notes/pdf/colossians.pdf.
Hendriksen, William. New Testament Commentary: Exposition of Philippians and Exposition of Colossians and Philemon. n.d. Reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979.
Ironside, H. A. An Ironside Expository Commentary: Philippians and Colossians. 1920. Reprint, Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic and Professional, 2007.
Jamieson, Robert, A. R. Fausset, and David Brown. A Commentary on the Old and New Testaments. Vol. 3. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2008.
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moises Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics; the Search for Meaning. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994.
________. “Hermeneutics and the Theological Task.” Trinity Journal 12.1 (Spring 1991): 3-14. Accessed 17 May 2017. http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/.
Krejcir, Richard. 2008. “Into Thy Word: Colossians 1:9-14.” Accessed 15 May 2017. http://www.intothyword.org/
apps/articles/default.asp?articleid=50857&columnid=3803. Into Thy Word Ministries.
Lenski, Richard C. H. The Interpretation of St. Paul’s Epistles to the Colossians, to the Thessalonians, to Timothy, to Titus and to Philemon. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1964.
Lightfoot, J. B. Saint Paul’s Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon. 1892. Reprint, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1959.
Marshall, Alfred, ed. The Interlinear KJV-NIV Parallel New Testament in Greek and English. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1975.
Paige, Lucius R. A Commentary on the New Testament: From the Epistle to the Galatians to the Epistle of Jude. Vol. 6. Boston: Universalist Publishing House, 1869.
Strong, James. The New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1996.
Thayer, Joseph H. Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament; Coded with Strong’s Concordance Numbers. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1896.
24
Vincent, Marvin R. Word Studies in the New Testament: The Epistles of Paul. Vol. 3. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishing, 2009.
Vine, W. E., Merrill F. Unger and William White, Jr. Vines Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words with Topical Index. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1970.
25
APPENDIX
OUTLINE
I. Context
A. General Considerations
1. Authorship
2. Date and Place of Writing
3. Destination
4. Occasion
5. Purpose
B. The Geo-Historical Context: The Lycus Valley ca. AD 40-70
C. The Text in Context: Paul’s Epistle to the Christians at Colosse
D. Paul’s Prayer in 1:9-14
II. Meaning
A. Be Filled (1:9)
B. Walk Worthy and Pleasing (1:10)
C. Be Strengthened (1:11)
III. Significance: Colossians for Today’s Christian
A. Salvation: The Beginning
B. Growth: Be Equipped
C. Relationship: Walk Worthy
IV. Conclusion

An Evaluation of Origins of Morality in Secular Humanism

LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
An Evaluation of Origins and Morality in Secular Humanism Relative to the Christian Worldview
Submitted to C. Fred Smith
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of
APOL 500
Apologetics
By
Robert Beanblossom
17 October 2017
ii
Contents
Introduction..…………………….…………………..………..……………….…………….…..1
Summary of Secular Humanism……………………….………………….…………….….…1
Evaluation of Secular Humanism …….………………………………….……….………..….3
Origins—Evolution ……………………………………………………….…………………….4
The Source of Morality ………………………..………………………….…………………….5
Defense of Christianity ………………………………………….……….…………………….8
Origins—Creation …………………………………………………..……….…………………..8
The Source of Morality ………………………………………………………………………….9
My Plan to Share and Defend the Christian Worldview ………..….………………………11
Bibliography …..………………………………………………………………………..………15
1
Introduction
This paper will examine secular humanism as a worldview and evaluate it relative to the Christian worldview. Secular humanism holds that within an ever-evolving universe man is currently the most advanced lifeform that has evolved, but is limited existentially in a world without deity to birth, life, and death; who will one day create utopia. The Christian worldview holds that the infinite personal triune God of creation is apparent in His works, and in His relationship with man, who is created in His own image. Although fallen by original sin, and living in a world cursed because of that sin, this God has provided for the redemption of man through the sacrifice and resurrection of His Son Jesus Christ, the Second Person of the Godhead, providing two alternatives: eternity with Him through accepting that redemption, or eternity without Him for failing to accept His Son.
Each worldview will be evaluated under three essential categories of a viable worldview as proposed by Douglas Groothius. These include coherence, factual adequacy, and radical ad hoc readjustment as applied to the questions of origins and morality. This paper will show that secular humanism fails when evaluated by objective criteria, and that Christianity alone provides an adequate belief system. We will then develop an apologetic suitable for adherents to Secular Humanism.
Summary of Secular Humanism
Secular humanism proclaims the radical freedom of man and the complete rejection of the miraculous and divine while evolution is a given. This paper will consider a representative form of secular humanism defined and re-defined frequently by the series of documents known as Humanist Manifestos. It is “opposed to all varieties of belief that seek supernatural sanction
2
for their values or espouse rule by dictatorship,” while it is “explicitly committed to democracy.”1 It builds upon faith in
atheism . . . and agnosticism or skepticism. . . . Because no transcendent power will save us. . . humans must take responsibility for themselves. . . . (and) encourage wherever possible the growth of moral awareness and the capacity for free choice and an understanding of the consequences thereof.”2
“Secular humanism is a balanced and fulfilling life stance. It is more than ‘unhyphenated humanism;’ it offers its own significant emergent qualities.”3 Rational methods of inquiry, logic, and evidence are essential in developing knowledge and testing claims to truth, but recognizing that humans are prone to err, knowledge including principles including those governing inquiry are subject to constant correction.4 Free inquiry is the “first principle” of secular humanism. This is in militant opposition to “any tyranny over the mind of man” that includes organizational standards or precepts from religious, political, ideological, or social institutions. In the quest for truth, the “process is as important as the result.”5 The scientific method is the “most reliable way of understanding the world.” Evolution is absolutely proven by science, “(a)lthough there are some differences among scientists concerning the mechanics of evolution.” Creationism can not be considered or examined as science, even as a possibility: religion is the anathema of
____________________
1 “A Secular Humanist Declaration,” Council for Secular Humanism. Originally published in 1980 by the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular Humanism): npn., accessed 3 October 2017, https://secularhumanism.org/index.php/11.
2 Ibid., npn.
3 Tom Flinn, “Secular Humanism Defined: Secular Humanism’s Unique Selling Proposition, Undated, Council for Secular Humanism: npn., accessed 9 October 2017. https://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php/13)
4 “Declaration,” npn.
5 “Declaration,” npn.
3
rationalism and the oppressor of the people. Arthur Schopenhauer observed, just before the rise of Darwin, that “in the nineteenth century we see Christianity significantly weakened, almost wholly deserted by serious faith,” as the energy of the Enlightenment made mockery of God.6
Replacing religion, reason and science are the major contributors to benefit humankind, with “no better substitute for the cultivation of human intelligence” to develop and exhibit ideal morality. Education is the vehicle to develop intelligence in the individual and the community.”7
Man is an evolutionary product of nature. Life originated by chance from pre-existing inorganic chemicals that combined to form viable organic lifeforms. As a product of evolution the mind is indivisibly conjoined with the functioning of the brain in which the body, mind, and personality can have no consciousness after death.8 Human ethics are based upon Critical Intelligence in which individuals develop autonomous choices that benefit humanity as a whole over self-interest. All human values grounded in experience and relationships. Reason and the scientific method must be implemented socially in all areas of economic, political, and cultural life with full freedom of expression, parliamentary government, and civil liberties. Anti-social, that is, immoral behavior, can be corrected by education.9
Evaluation of Secular Humanism
The ongoing succession Humanist Manifestos are self-contradictory, and fail the tests of
coherence and factual adequacy as proposed as standard criteria of worldview evaluation
____________________
6 Arthur Schopenhauer, “Uber Religion,” Sammtliche Werke, ed. Julius Frauenstadt, New Ed., 6 Vol. (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1922): 6:6. Post-publication English translation by Theodore Ziolkowski.
7 “Declaration,” npn.
8 “Declaration,” npn.
9 “Declaration,” npn.
4
by Douglas Groothius.10 Secular humanism holds high ideals for personal achievement through science and reason in a moral environment which brings civilization to a utopian level, all by the force of personal will and self-actualization. It postulates democratic organizations where the will of the individual is willingly subordinated to the good of the group. All of this is made possible by evolution.
Origins–Evolution
Evolution is a mindless natural process, by definition, in which lifeless and amoral protons, neutrons and electrons have combined accidentally to form viable life, consciousness, intelligence, and morality. It is a continuing process in which man is an expendable organism.11 William A. Dembski says that the evolutionary community has re-defined science to include philosophical ideas that are outside the limits of the traditional method, but “evolution addresses a “scientific” question whereas intelligent design addresses a religious question.”12 He notes properly, that both are beyond the scope of the scientific method that requires observation, formulation and testing of a hypothesis, revision until tests conform to observation, and the opportunity for falsification. Evolution as a species-to-species change has never been proven, nor has any historical record been discovered to confirm it. Evolution fails as a matter of factual adequacy. Secular Humanism holds that man has intelligence, the ability to reason, and develop and live by moral values as a result of chance as described in the discussion on evolution.
____________________
10 Douglas Groothius, Christian Apologetics: A Comprehensive Case for Biblical Truth (Downer’s Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2011), 52-60.
11 George Gaylord Simpson, The Meaning of Evolution, rev. ed. (New Haven, CN: Yale University Press, 1967), 345.
12 William A. Dembski, Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science and Theology (Downer’s Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1999), 117.
5
The Source of Morality
Secular humanism declares that moral values emanate exclusively from human experience; that “Ethics is autonomous and situational needing no theological or ideological sanction;”13 and that “Critical Intelligence is the best method that humanity has for resolving problems,” since reason is balanced with “compassion and empathy.”14 The tension between individual and corporate morality is balanced by the individual goodness of man who innately possesses “individual freedom of choice. . . (that) should be increased.”15 “For the first time in history we possess the means provided by science and technology to ameliorate the human condition, advance happiness and freedom, and enhance human life for all people on the planet,” proclaims the Humanist Manifesto 2000.16 The “we” who moderates the Critical Intelligence to achieve societal good is never specified. The Christian worldview does not deny that non-Christians do not possess some measure of moral value since under that worldview, the unbeliever is the person that each Christian was prior to redemption.17 All humans are part of the Adamic race to whom God gives some indication of Himself (John 1:9). Philosopher Michael Ruse says of the modern evolutionary position, “humans have an awareness of morality. . . because such an awareness is of biological worth. Morality is a biological adaptation no less
____________________
13 Paul Kurtz and Edwin H. Wilson, “Humanist Manifesto II, Point 3,” American Humanist Association (1973): npn., accessed 9 October 2017, https://americanhumanist.org/what-is-humanism/manifesto2/.
14 “Manifesto II,” Point 4.
15 “Manifesto II,” Point 6
16 Paul Kurtz, 2000, “Humanist Manifesto 2000: A Call for a New Planetary Humanism,” International Academy of Humanism, USA, Prospects for a Better Future: npn., accessed 9 October 2017, https://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php/1169.
17 Groothius, 331.
6
than are hands and feet. . . . Considered as a rationally justifiable set of claims about an objective something, ethics is illusory. . . . Morality is just an aid to survival and reproduction.”18 This “biological factor” is what William Lane Craig calls “herd mentality.”19 He refutes the proposition of Critical Intelligence by showing the inconsistency of the evolutionary argument that, while holding humans as simply another animal, claims this unique moral objectivity which other species lack. Craig calls this logical inconsistency “an unbiased bias toward one’s own species.”20
Objectivity is relative to humanists such as Kurtz: “There are objective standards that we can use. But these standards are, of course relative to interests and needs, and they change over time.”21 With no objective basis for moral accountability to make moral choices significant, those choices are trivialized, making no contributions to society.22 John Hare states that, in Kantian terms, “moral goodness without belief in God is rationally unstable.”23 The humanist attempt to restore human worth resulted in the destruction of the “self-determining, personal agent who was to have dominion over his environment rather than being determined by it,” according to Gordon R. Lewis and Bruce A Demarest.”24 E. J. Carnell, as understood by Brian
____________________
18 Michael Ruse, “Evolutionary Theory and Christian Ethics,” The Darwinian Paradigm (London: Routledge, 1989), 262, 268-69.
19 Robert K. Garcia, and Nathan L. King, ed., Is Goodness without God Good Enough: A Debate on Faith, Secularism, and Ethics (NY: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2009), 32.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid., 35.
22 Ibid., 38.
23 Ibid., 85. “Unstable” is from N. T. Volckman’s notes to Kant’s Natural Theology, 28:1151 in the Berlin Academy Edition).
24 Gordon R. Lewis and Bruce A. Demarest, Integrative Theology, 3 Vol. (Nashville: Zondervan, 2014), 1:41.
7
K. Morley, believes that as moral beings we must be aware that we “are not the authors of our own existence, (but) that we are bound by moral duties and that violations of duty are culpable before and administrator of justice who transcends humanity;” the absence of a transcendent administrator makes all moral judgements meaningless.26 We see that the evolution as the foundation and the claim for a godless source of morality fails the test of factual adequacy. William Lane Craig muses, “if theism is false, it’s very hard to understand what basis remains for objective moral duties. . . . if theism is false, what is the basis of moral accountability?”27 Even Paul Kurtz, author or co-author of the Manifestos acknowledges that the expectations of a dawning utopia in “far too optimistic” in view of ongoing world conditions.28 The secular humanist position on morality fails coherently and, as adapted and modified in the evolving Manifestos, fails in terms of current and expected radical ad hoc readjustment.
Critical Intelligence suggests that some undefined extra-human group intelligence exists that governs human moral behavior. This position fails on three counts: (1) no proof for Critical Intelligence has been proposed; (2) human behavior does not demonstrate a universal goodness in man; and, (3) the secular humanist emphasis on the autonomy of the individual is at odds with an undefined “we” that is the group ethic. R. Z. Friedman concludes that, “Without religion the coherence of an ethic of compassion cannot be established. The principle of respect for persons and the principle of the survival of the fittest are mutually exclusive.”28 Critical Intelligence as ____________________
25 Brian K. Morley, Mapping Apologetics: Comparing Contemporary Approaches. (Downer’s Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2015), 167.
26 Groothius, 33.
27 “Manifesto II,” Preface.
28 R. Z. Friedman, “Does the Death of God Really Matter?” International Philosophical Quarterly 23 (1983): 322.
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a source of societal morality is contrary to the historical behavior of man: it is without proof, not supported by the random agglomeration of inert chemicals, thus failing the test of actual adequacy; in addition, experience does not support a universal goodness of man.
Defense of Christianity
The Christian worldview is the biblical worldview. It is decisive, dogmatic, and intolerant of claims contrary to the God revealed in the Bible. Inherent and foundational are the dogmas of Creation ex niliho29 by an all-powerful eternal personal God, and absolute morality anchored in objective truth established firmly by His infinite righteousness.
Origins–Creation
Creation is attested both in the OT, as in Genesis 1:1, and in the NT, as in Revelation 4:11. His righteousness is also given in the OT, as in His relationship with the Hebrews (Deut 4:8), and in the NT as judge of all righteousness in His creation (Rev 19:1-2).
The physical cosmos is empirical evidence: we see, feel, smell, taste, and hear our world. “Human beings can know both the world around them and God Himself because God has built into them the capacity to do so and because He takes an active role in communicating with them,” according to James W. Sire.30 Enan McMullin, a non-Christian cosmologist, said, “if the universe began in time through the act of a Creator, from our vantage point it would look something like the Big Bang.”31 Science, the discipline that observes, formulates, tests, and
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29 Dembski, 91.
30 James W. Sire, Universe Next Door (Downer’s Grove: Il; Inter Varsity Press, 2009), 36.
31 Enan McMullin, “How Should Cosmology Relate to Theology?” The Sciences and Theology in the Twentieth Century, ed. A. R. Peacocke (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 39.
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adjusts propositions as necessary to achieve coincidence between theory and observation, cannot rationally address creation. It is impossible to observe that which is past, and it cannot test or replicate ex niliho beginnings. No scientific test has proven any aspect of biblical creation wrong.32 Natural laws require a cause for an effect: something does not come from nothing. Rather than trying to address creation from a scientific viewpoint, William Lane Craig brings a teleological argument known as “kalam,” an inference to the best explanation: the most minute details of the cosmos, Earth, atomic and sub-atomic particles, and life itself can only exist in very narrow parameters and still function, thus a designer (God) is required.33 Creation by an all-powerful God is the only rationally acceptable proposition for beginnings.
The Source of Morality
God is Truth, morality is absolute, and derives from Him alone. Truth and morality are inextricably intertwined in the infinitude of God that authorizes His establishment of morality and truth, but A. W. Tozer admits, “You cannot understand what infinite is, but don’t let it bother you—I don’t understand it and I’m trying to explain it.”34 “We are morally responsible before God to believe things that are true and disbelieve things that are false,” according to C. Fred Smith.35 “Christianity claims to be true.”36 The world “can be lived in successfully because truth
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32 Groothius, 299. Groothius disagrees, suggesting that it might hinder the apologetic argument since “science has long addressed issues that cannot be settled in the laboratory.” This writer contends that holding science to the scientific method and philosophy to things philosophical is both honest and valid.
33 Morley, 243-251.
34 A. W. Tozer, The Attributes of God: A Journey into the Father’s Heart (Chicago: Wing Spread Publishers, 2003), 1-4.
35 C. Fred. Smith, Developing a Biblical Worldview: Seeing things God’s Way (Nashville: B and H Academic, 2015), 45.
36 Groothius, 77.
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functions here.”37 Groothius finds “two core components” to truth: the nature of truth, and truth claims need to be tested in light of contradictory claims.38 Evidentiary truth must be meaningful in that it puts forth an “understandable truth claim.39 Objective truth is absolute and knowable. “The truth of moral and logical principles does not correspond to reality in the same way as do statements about observable empirical facts,” states Groothius: “The law of noncontradiction is true not because it corresponds to any one slice of reality but because it corresponds to all of reality.”40 The epistemological claim that truth and morality are absolute and knowable is logically consistent. Truth, as bound by the laws of logic, is subject to the principle of non-contradiction as codified by Aristotle in Metaphysics.41 C. Fred Smith puts forth veridical goodness within the Christian worldview as the goodness of truth, claiming a rational God who created a world that has both truth and their opposites which are false, suggesting two primary tests of truth: the first is correspondence, that is, it corresponds with reality; the second is coherence, that is, it fits logically with other statements that we believe.”42 Groothius calls correspondence “realism,” since it is “commonsensical and employed by anyone who affirms something about reality.”43 The Christian worldview is grounded in an unchanging God who has given His followers the unchanging Word: He says, “Jesus Christ the same yesterday, and to day,
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37 Smith, 43.
38 Groothius, 122.
39 Ibid., 123.
40 Groothius, 125.
41 Groothius, 46-47.
42 Ibid., 42-45.
43 Groothius, 123.
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and forever (Heb 13:8). This concept is coherent with the rest of the Christian worldview, it is factually demonstrated in the lives of each Christian, and never changes. Christianity provides the only coherent explanation for objective truth and morality.
My Plan to Share and Defend the Christian Worldview
Each Christian is called upon by Jesus to go into our world as witnesses even as He did (John 20:21). As the apostles demonstrated, the path for each of us is different: each had a different target audience, a different approach to their mission, and different apparent results. This is consistent with the Master’s teaching (Rom 3:12-8). The last thing Christ told His followers before His ascension was that this shall be done in the power of the Holy Spirit whom He would send (Acts 1:8).
This writer has passed his threescore and ten year milestone. One of the prime lessons he has learned is that our Lord has used every step of that life to prepare him for the very next one; without exception and without fail. He has been able to minister to the church as a layman, a witness and a teacher, as he has been ministered to by his brothers and sisters in Christ. In recent years, he has, much to his own surprise, taken to the internet, at his own website and on social media, as a platform for witnessing. This is the thrust of his “outside” personal ministry. Of special interest is his participation in groups that draw atheists and confused Christians, generally those individuals who have read far more about Christianity than have actually spent time in the Word.
Secular humanists are often militant in their evangelistic efforts to convert the world to their point of view. The internet is a useful platform to draw these individuals in to discussions that often begin with an attack they made on God or some other aspect of Christianity. The author’s approach is to carefully read the post and attachments. Posts pro-evolution or anti-
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creation are often selected, as are comments based upon situational ethics or attacking key Christian ethical values. A key fallacy of the post or attachment will be selected for an opening remark. The approach is situational as Groothius recommends. With E. J. Carnell, I believe that there is sufficient common ground between the believer and non-believer to obey Christ’s command to witness.44 With John Frame, I believe that there is sufficient connection between our finite knowledge as His creature and God’s infinite knowledge to bring coherent arguments to the table on His behalf.45 With Richard Swinburne, I believe that logical arguments with mathematical and scientific integrity appeal to some and offer strong starting points for the message of salvation.46 With C. Fred Smith, I move, flexibly, through the four worldview questions adapted from Brian Walsh and Richard Middleton to bring relevance to the discussions.
The author will respond with a question regarding an “apparent” contradiction between the stated view and the attachment or the stated view and inherent contradictions in the secular humanist worldview as discussed above. Belligerent responses are allowed to fade away. Rational responses are followed with appropriate constructions. These early volleys often bring in other respondents. Another approach is to post a succinct lure, often from my website, such as,
It seems to me that the more I consider evolution, the more confused I am. The evolutionist believes that all life, including man, originated from pre-existing inorganic elements. . . that somehow got together and combined to form organic lifeforms that could sustain themselves.47
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44 Morley, 160-161.
45 Morley, 93-94.
46 Morley, 190-194.
47 Bob Beanblossom, “Evolution—Incredible Worldview,” It Seems to Me. 2017: npn., accessed 15 October 2017, http://bobbeanblossom.com/1530-2/.
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These posts and links often get quite a bit of response. Two recent posts of this sort in a Facebook group “. . . Christian Society,” drew over 100 and 130 responses each, with many from what can only be described as atheists with that John 1:8 spark working in their hearts through the Holy Spirit. These discussions are always conducted respectfully, with offensive responses ignored.
Evolution is the beginning point for a discussion leading to the establishment of an intelligent creator, and to the existence of the infinite, all-powerful personal God who is interested enough in the individual(s) in the discussion to send His own Son to provide for their redemption.
Evolution is also the springboard for discussions of objective truth and morality as the problem of sin is often interjected when the discussion turns to an infinitely holy God. Here the arguments are more structured, being always founded on Scripture. Groothius’ use of Paul’s argument to the Corinthians (1 Cor 15:14-19) is a favored basis upon which to build.48
The author acknowledges ruefully that the secular perception of diverse beliefs within Christianity is both true and difficult to overcome, especially to one who has not (yet?) embraced Scripture as inspired and inerrent.49 Often appeal to the laws of logic as discussed by Groothius are helpful to these respondants.50
Specific arguments for each concept are tailored around my perception of the knowledge and understanding of the individual, with the intent always to bring that person to salvation, not to “win” an argument.
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48 Groothius, 117-118.
49 Ibid., 118-122.
50 Ibid., 46-49.
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The author continues to teach Christians, attempting to provide depth as the Spirit leads. Many Christians have been subjected to the same outlines with lesson plans varying only slightly from grade school to grave. Depth in understanding for them is a matter of their individual relationship with out Lord and the time they spend in prayer, fasting, and in the Scripture. Questions concerning proof of their stated beliefs often get a “deer in the headlight” response. Again, following Groothius, the construction is incremental, building precept upon precept.
This is my calling, my mission. I am not the solution, but one of a cloud of witnesses (Heb 12:1). My clock is running down. One day, maybe soon, I will get my transfer orders to report to my Commander-in-Chief. In the meantime, as He allows and directs, I will do my best to follow His lead, preparing constantly for what is to follow.
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Ruse, Michael. “Evolutionary Theory and Christian Ethics,” The Darwinian Paradigm. London: Routledge, 1989.
Schopenhauer, Arthur. “Uber Religion,” Sammtliche Werke, ed. Julius Frauenstadt, New Ed., 6 Vol. (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1922, 6. Cited reference translated by Theodore Ziolkowski.
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