The Synagogue: A Steppingstone from the Temple to the Church

LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
The Synagogue
A Stepping Stone from the Temple to the Church
Submitted to Dr. Rene A. Lopez, Ph. D.
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of
NBST 510 B03
Spring 2017
New Testament Introduction
by
Robert Beanblossom
1 March 2017
ii
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Political Setting: The Second Temple Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Assyrian Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Babylonian Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Persian Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Greek Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Alexander the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
The Ptolemaic Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Seleucid or Syrian Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Jewish Self-Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Roman Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Jewish Revolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Progressive Revelation—Progressive Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Second Temple Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Synagogue Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Church Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
1
Introduction
The birth, death, and resurrection of Jesus fundamentally changed the relationship
between God the Creator, and man the creature. It dramatically changed the millennia-old
relationship between the god, YHWH, and His Chosen People, the Jews. Shortly after the
resurrected Son of God returned to the right hand of His Father, the Holy Spirit, sent by the
departed Messiah, fell upon a small but faithful remnant of the crowds who had followed
Jesus (Acts 1:12-13) and had hailed him, just days before, as their king (John 12:12-14).1 The
Holy Spirit transformed them from fearful and disillusioned followers into enlightened and
empowered agents of the Most High God (Acts 2:1-4). Emerging from their hiding place in an
upper room in Jerusalem, they boldly proclaimed the Good News of the resurrected Christ (Acts
2:4-7) that “turned the world upside down” (Acts 17:6). The liturgy of the Temple was instantly
obsolete, to be replaced by a new order established by God in the infinity before Creation (see
Heb 9). Even as the dying Lamb of God pronounced: “It is finished” (John 19:30), the barrier to
the Holy of Holies that had limited man’s access to God was torn from top to bottom (Matt
27:51), from God to man. God was now accessible through a new “royal” priesthood of
individual Christians (1 Pet 2:9-10). God’s focus shifted from His Chosen People to the Bride of
the Lamb, a growing corps of multi-national witnesses (Matt 24:14), some of whom had seen
Jesus, but all of whom had experienced Him. It demanded a new order of worship. We will
briefly examine the synagogue as a divinely ordained transitional form between the temple of the
old order and the church of the new order. We will begin with a short review of the political
setting of the Second Temple Period. The synagogue is the stepping stone from the symbolic
liturgy of the Temple to the personal worship of God in the church.
The Political Setting: The Second Temple Period (515 BC—AD70)2
Just prior to its destruction, Solomon’s temple was still the center of Jewish life, but it
___________________
1 Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the King James Version.
2 Andreas J. Kostenberger, L. Scott Kellum, and Charles L. Quarels, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown; An Introduction to the New Testament, (Nashville, TN: B. and H. Academic Publishers, 2009), 64.
2
had ceased to be the God-centered institution that it once was.3 The united monarchy of David
and Solomon had given way to the rival kingdoms of Israel in the north and Judah in the south.
Jerusalem and the temple were in Judah.4 “Ominous for the future of Israel and Judah alike was
their own shortsighted hostility toward each other,” causing almost constant border warfare and
dissipation of resources that ultimately led to their downfall.5
The Assyrian Period (722-606 BC)
Each kingdom forged independent protective alliances rather than seeking the
protection of their God. Without Him these alliances were never enough: only brief peaceful
respites broke the pain of war. Assyria grew in power under Tiglath-Pileser III, who created an
empire stretching from the Persian Gulf to Armenia, dominating Syria and Palestine.6 Israel’s
Hoshea, encouraged by Tyre, attempted to develop an alliance with Egypt, but Egypt lacked
strength and interest in this northern region.7 Shalmaneser V, upon coming to the Syrian throne,
invaded Israel, capturing its king.8 Following three years of siege, resistance collapsed in 722
BC and Israel ceased to exist. At least 27 thousand Israelites were exiled and absorbed into
Assyria and Media (2 Kgs 17:23-24),9 becoming known as the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.10 King
Ahaz allied Judah with Tiglath-pileser of Assyria to secure protection from Kings Rezin of Syria
and Remaliah of Israel. Judah was spared for the moment (2 Kgs 16). Hezekiah, supported by
public opinion,11 succeeded Ahaz. He attempted to bribe the Assyrian king with gold, silver, and
temple treasures (2 Kgs 18:14-16). Unappeased, the Assyrians placed Jerusalem under siege,
____________________
3 Michael Grant, The History of Ancient Israel, (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1984), 120.
4 Ibid., 120.
5 Ibid., 121.
6 Ibid.,120.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid., 121.
11 Ibid., 139.
3
Hezekiah prayed and God intervened (2 Kgs 19:15-19). In 714 BC the Assyrians withdrew
without battle (2 Kgs 19:35-36).12 Syria’s power was on the wane; Babylon had become the
major power in the region.13
The Babylonian Period (606-539 BC)14
This period begins with the Babylonian occupation of Israel (2 Kgs 25:1-8) in 605/606 BC.15
Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem and his troops destroyed Solomon’s Temple (2 Kgs 25:9). He
sent upper class Jews and temple treasures to Babylon (2 Kgs 24:8-16).16 Zedekiah was
appointed king by Nebuchadnezzar, but renewed the Egyptian connection and revolted against
Babylonian in 593 BC (2 Kgs 24:17-20).17 Nebuchadnezzar responded with another siege of
Jerusalem that lasted from 589 BC to 586 BC.18 Jerusalem fell, the victim of devastating famine
and disease. The First Temple Period had ended, God’s chosen people were dispersed, with the
Ten Lost Tribes apparently being assimilated into their adopted cultures, while those from Judea
in Babylon retained their identity as they drew closer to their God.19 At least some of the Jews
left in Judea, fearing further Babylonian retribution, fled to Egypt (2 Kgs 25:22-26).20 Time
passed and kings changed. Nabonidos, fourth successor to Nebuchadnezzar, was not equal the
task of empire, and the cycle continued: Babylon fell to the growing empire of Persia.21
____________________
12 Ibid., Kostenberger, 68.
13 Ibid., Grant, 141.
14 Ibid., Kostenberger, 64.
15 Ibid., 68.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid., 69.
20 Ibid., Grant, 120.
21 Ibid., Kostenberger, 69.
4
The Persian Period (539-331)22
Cyrus II the Great of Persia defeated King Nabonidos without conflict in 539 BC by
entering and taking Babylon through the Euphrates River channel into the city.23 Among Cyrus’
spoils of war were the various peoples whom the Babylonians had resettled in exile. An
unknowing agent of God (Isa 44:28-45:1-5), Cyrus issued an edict in 538 BC that permitted the
return of many of these exiles to their homelands, including Judeans (Ezra 1:1).24 Some Jews,
who were apparently satisfied with their new lifestyle, chose to stay in Babylon, while others
returned in waves over several years to Jerusalem.25 Cyrus, far more benevolent than the
Babylonians, supported and promoted the rebuilding efforts in Jerusalem. He sent temple
treasures recovered from the Babylonians26 to Prince Sheshbazzar of Judea (Ezra 1:7-11), with
financial aid that included funds he solicited from Babylonian Jews (see Ezra 1). Reconstruction
was often disrupted by neighboring states who sought to block Judah’s rebirth.27 Limited
funding, manpower, and wavering interest contributed to the slow realization of the project.28
Over the years, succeeding Persian kings continued to send Jewish emissaries to complete the
temple and city walls, including Nehemiah (Neh 2:17), Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 5). King
Darius, determined to get the project completed, sent Ezra with 1,496 chosen men who laid the
foundations in 520 BC and completed construction in 516 BC.29 The Second Temple Period had
begun. Persian reign as a major world power was on the wane as the Macedonians, under
Alexander the Great, took control of the world.
____________________
22 Ibid., Kostenberger, 69.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid
26 Azriel Eisenberg, The Synagogue Through the Ages, (NY: Bloch Publishing Company, 1974), 34.
26 Ibid, Kostenberger, 69.
27 Ibid., Eisenberg., 36.
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid.
5
The Greek Period (331-167 BC)30
Alexander the Great (331-320 BC)31
Alexander ascended to power when his father, Philip of Macedonia, was assassinated in
336 BC, inheriting the Greek city-states as his power base.32 He moved swiftly, conquering lands
from Greece to Egypt, probably including Judah, known at the time as Palestine Syria, with little
if any resistance, although historians of the time ignored Judah in their writings.33 Alexander
allowed a great degree of religious freedom and self-identity for those who conformed. He
and his successors instituted intense Hellenization throughout the conquered lands to assure
conformity, renaming cities, building new ones, and introducing Greek customs and language,
causing conflict with conservative Jews in Jerusalem.34 Alexander’s early death in lead to the
division of the empire among his generals and a long-lasting power struggle among those vying
for power.35 Michael Grant underscores this:
When Alexander died in 323 (BC), his huge empire split up into a number of separate Hellenistic kingdoms ruled by his Macedonian followers . . . Three principal dynasties eventually emerged: the Antigonids in Macedonia, the Seleucids in Syria and Mesopotamia and lands farther east, and the Ptolemies in Egypt and certain eastern Mediterranean coastlands and hinterlands. These Ptolemaic possessions included ‘Judea.’”36
The empire that Alexander had won with so great vigor proved to be held together by the force
of his personality and the energy of his person. The glory of Rome was to be consumed from
within as was that of the previous great empires.
____________________
30 Ibid., Kostenberger, 71.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid., 73.
34 Ibid.
35 Ibid., 75
36 Ibid., Grant, 199.
6
.The Ptolemaic Period (320-198 BC)37
Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander’s generals, was appointed to the throne of Egypt by
the Roman Senate and established the only successful dynasty of Alexander’s generals.38 “Judea
under Ptolemaic reign remains clouded in obscurity,” according to Kostenberger, et al., who
continued, “According to the few trustworthy sources that survive, Judea evidently continued to
govern itself . . .”39 as a vassal of the Ptolemaic dynasties with a theocratic government centered
on the temple and temple rulers. “As the third century (BC) proceeded on its course, Judea
continued to be a bone of contention between the Ptolemies and their Seleucid neighbors and
rivals in Syria.40
The Seleucid or Syrian Period (198-167 BC)41
In 198 BC, the Ptolemies Dynasty, under Ptolemy V, lost Israel at the battle of Paneas to
Antiochus III, transferring control of that region to the Seleucid Syrians.42 The victory was short-
lived, as dynamic stresses in the area brought the Jews to the battle in their own interest.43 It was
a difficult time, at best, with civil unrest increasing in cycles as the Syrians outlawed Jewish
customs and traditions. Antiochus III “picked a fight with the Romans,” that ended badly for
him.44 Antiochus IV, who called himself Epiphanes, the Glorious One, assumed power and
continued the intense Hellenization of captured lands and peoples. He looked to the temple as a
source of revenue, while entering a program of self-aggrandizement, attempted to ban Judaism.45
In so doing, he prohibited the “. . . the Torah, circumcision, festivals, and offerings to Yahweh.
____________________
37 Ibid., Kostenberger, 75.
38 Ibid., 74.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid., Grant, 204.
41 Ibid., 75.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid.76.
45 Ibid., 77.
7
Perhaps most devastating of all . . . he dedicated the Jewish temple to Zeus” (1 Macc 1),46
profaning it in an act known as the Abomination of Desolation as predicted by the prophet
Daniel (Dan 9:27). Zeus was equated by the Jews with the “Phoenician (Canaanite) Baal
Shamin”47 that the had entangled the Jews for generations upon entering the Promised Land,
only to be renounced finally during the revival of the Babylonian captivity. Jews who resisted the
desecration of their religion and attempted to continue to serve their God were dealt with
severely.48 The period ended with the Jewish Maccabean Revolt.
Jewish Self-Rule (167-63 BC)49
The extreme self-aggrandizement hiding in the Hellenization of his domain by
Antiochus IV led to a popular uprising and intermittent periods of Jewish self-rule.50 Judah
Maccabeus took over the revolt begun by his father Mattathias, in 166 BC.51 Hailed as a
“guerrilla genius,”52 his victories against the Syrians included the return of Jerusalem to the Jews,
and subsequent cleansing and rededication of the temple in 164 BC, removing profane Greek
elements: the event is commemorated even today as Hanukkah, the Festival of Lights (1 Macc
2).54 He was killed in battle in 160 BC and replaced by his brother Jonathan,55 who took the
Mediterranean port of Joppa from the Seleucids. Returning it to them in a diplomatic move, he
____________________
46 Ibid., Grant, 204.
47 Ibid. 209.
48 Ibid., Kostenberger , 77.
49 Ibid.
50 Ibid., Grant, 210.
51 Ibid.
52 Ibid.
53 Ibid.
54 Ibid.
55 Ibid., 212.
56 Ibid.
57 Ibid.
8
received formal “recognition as the ‘governor of Judea.’”56 Jonathan’s secular interests and
international maneuverings raised the ire of his family and countrymen; seting the stage for
future conflicts.57 When he died in battle, the last surviving brother, Simon, came to power,
achieving what his brothers had not: he achieved formal independence for Judah.58 Climaxing as
it did, Grand proclaimed, “Thus, the Maccabean Rebellion had finally triumphed—the only
successful revolt, in defense of the religion, that the history of the ancient world can provide,”
lasting for “eighty years to come (with only brief intermission).”59 Simon was rewarded by his
grateful subjects with the High Priesthood, along with military, religious and executive
privileges, that proved the beginning of the end for the short-lived independence of the Judean
state.60 The Maccabean Period ended with the murder of Simon and two of his sons in 135 BC.61
The Hasmoneans dynasty came to power with John Hyrcanus I,62 an efficient
expansionist, who added Moab and Idumea.63 Upon his death in 104 BC, his son, Aristobulus I
rose to power, but died the next year, succeeded by Alexander Jannaeus, who was appointed
king and high priest by John’s wife, who soon married Alexander.64 Evidently, the pair adapted
to Hellenizing influences well: Josephus, in Antiquities, while listing his conquest, remarked:
“He was called a lover of the Grecians; and had conferred many benefits on his country . . .”65
Although expanding the territories to “Solomonic proportions” using mercenaries, the extreme
expansionism and Hellenistic worldview proved unpopular with his countrymen, who revolted,
but lost in a lack of interest.66 Salome, the woman behind the thrones, stepped forward in 76 BC,
____________________
58 Ibid., Grant, 212.
59 Ibid.
60 Ibid., Kostenberger, 79
61 Ibid., 80.
62 Ibid., 81.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
65 Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, 13:318.
66 Ibid., Kostenberger, 81.
9
and ruled in relative peace and prosperity for nine years, making the most of nepotistic
appointments.67 Family members, well trained by their forbearers, contended vigorously for the
throne, inciting civil war, while Rome positioned itself for conquest.
Roman Rule (63 BC-AD 70)68
The Romans displaced the Greeks globally, and the Hasmoneans locally when, in 63 BC,
Pompey conquered Jerusalem ending the Judean civil war following the death of Salome.69
Political infighting still plagued the Romans, with leaders coming and going.70 King Herod the
Great, who had fled to Rome to for safety, “was named “king of Judea” by the Roman Senate in
40 BC,” but did not control it until 37 BC, when in concert with Marc Antony, he helped to
depose Antigonus.71 Herod is remembered in the biblical account during the period following
Jesus’ birth for slaying male children under two years of age when he heard of the birth of the
Child who would be king (Matt 2:15:17); and is remembered in secular history for monumental
egocentric construction projects throughout his realm that included enlarging and beautifying the
temple in Jerusalem.72 Josephus remarks in Antiquities that Herod conducted many grand
building projects that included government buildings, temples, and harbors.73 Caesar Augustus,
emperor at the time Christ was born (Luke 2:1), was followed by a series of Roman appointees
between 6 BC and AD 66. Pontius Pilate, the governor and prefect (Luke 3:1) in Palestine at the
time of Jesus, was the cruel and corrupt politician74 who presided at the trial and sentencing of
Jesus (Matt 27: 11-26), who succumbed to the will of the Jewish hierarchy (Matt 27:1-3),
____________________
67 Ibid, Kostenberger, 81-82.
68 Ibid., 83.
69 Ibid.
70 Ibid.
71 Ibid.
72 Ibid., Grant, 230.
73 Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, 8-9.
74 Ibid., Kostenberger, 86.
10
and popular opinion (Matt 27:24), to convict Him of treason (Mark 15:2, 9). The Church Age
had begun. As persecution of the church increased, so did the problems of Jerusalem.75 With
changes in Rome came changes in Palestine: following Pilate’s death in AD 52, came Felix, then
Festus in AD 59,76 then Florus who, coming to power in AD 61, raided the temple treasury,
provoking the last Jewish revolt. The Jews again fared badly, with the war leading to defeat and
the destruction of their nation for centuries to come.77
Jewish Revolts (AD 66-135)78
The Judeans revolted in AD 66 as grievances peaked. Emperor Caligula declared himself a
god and ordered his statue placed in the temple, reported by Philo in “On the Embassy to
Gaius (Caligula).”79 This abomination was averted by the death of Caligula in AD 41.80
Succeeding him, Nero revoked Roman citizenship of the Jews. Governor Floris detained and
imprisoned a Jewish political delegation and, when taxes fell behind, took temple silver.81
Rioting ensued, and Floris responded with house-to-house searches for dissidents, crucifying
many in the proess.82 Thus, in AD 66, the First Jewish Revolt, known also as the First Roman
War, started.83 As in the past, Jewish hurt and anger were no match for the power of empire:
the nation fell. Jerusalem was slightly behind, but fell also. The defeat includied the
destruction of the temple in AD 70, ending the Second Temple Period and the Jewish nation.84
As God had warned, “I am bringing such evil upon Jerusalem and Judah . . . and I will wipe
____________________
75 A. Bendel, Outlines of Church History, (Reading, PA: Pilger Book Store, 1882), 12.
76 Ibid., Kostenberger, 78.
77 Ibid.
78 Ibid., Kostenberger, 64.
79 Philo, On the Embassy to Gaius, XXX.203, 207-208.
80 Ibid., Kostenberger, 87.
81 Ibid., Grant, 240.
82 Ibid.
83 Ibid.
84 Ibid., Kostenberger, 87.
11
Jerusalem as a man wipeth a dish, wiping it, and turning it upside down. And I will forsake the
remnant of mine inheritance, and deliver them into the hand of their enemies” (2 Kings 12-14).
Progressive Revelation—Progressive Response
From “In the beginning” (Gen 1:1a), through “It is finished” (John 19:30), God’s
inspired writers have given a progressive revelation of His relationship with man including
patterns of worship that He expected (Matt 11:28). We will consider the transition from the
Judaic temple to the Christian Church as a function of worship.
Second Temple Worship
An “important feature of Judaism was the Jerusalem temple, which served as a vital
symbol of national and religious unity.”85 Built by exiles returning from Babylonian captivity
(Ezra 3:8), renovated in 18 BC, and enlarged by Herod in AD 64,86 the Second Temple was a
“magnificent structure.”87 Like the Tabernacle and the First Temple, it was the center of Jewish
life, integrating worship, education, commerce, and the law, but the spiritual quality was gone.
The Ark of the Covenant, the meeting place of God and man in the security of the Holy of
Holies, was missing. It had not been seen since the destruction of the First Temple. In the Second
Temple environment, the priesthood had been restored in function only, as greed and power
struggles polluted both the office and all that the priesthood did. Priestly offices conceived
outside of the Mosaic Law, were political, appointed by the Roman government. These officials
fed on political intrigue and power (Acts 24:1). Theological and political issues divided Jewish
leaders into sects that had their start in the Maccabean period.88 The great Sadducee houses of
Jerusalem supported Herod, then the Romans, with fluid allegiances intended to maintain their
power base.89 The Pharisees, who during the Dispersion were the missionary branch of Judaism,
____________________
85 Ibid., Kostenberger, 99.
86 Ibid.
87 Ibid.
88 Ibid., 103.
89 Ibid., Grant, 236.
12
converting proselytes to the faith,90 in Jesus’ time, had become self-centered and self-serving.
Jesus berated these as having departed from the faith of their fathers, displaying a form of
religious behavior, but not a relationship with God (Matt 3:7). Other factions were sometimes
independent of the Pharisees and Sadducees, while at other times were their radical fringes.
These included the Essenes, described by Pliny the Elder,91 and the Zealots, with whom Jesus’
disciple Simon (not Peter) was associated (Luke 6:15). Second Temple Jews that were
individually distinguishable from other nationalities throughout the empire by dress and custom,
otherwise appeared to be unique nationally simply by having one temple rather than several
temples to many gods. To a large extent, form and function were very similar to neighboring
pagans. After the destruction of the Second Temple, the Pharisees founded a rabbinic school
while the Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots disappeared from history.92 Kostenberger notes that
scholars have become increasingly aware that Second Temple Judaism had become theologically
diverse as their scholars developed various legalistic interpretations that became theologies.93
Animal sacrifice continued, with the convenience of sacrificial animals available for
purchase in the temple courts. Temple taxes could be paid only with silver shekels from Tyre in
Phoenicia due to their relative consistency in weight and quality. These, too, were available for
exchange by the money sellers in the temple court. This was the commercialization of the temple
that Jesus disrupted (Matt 21:12).94 Scripture and genealogical records were preserved. Jewish
scholars, including Jesus, read, studied, and expounded the Scripture (John 7:28). Extra-biblical
rabbinical scholarship had begun to flourish in the century or so before the birth of Jesus to
interpret the Law. This legalism added burdensome regulations not intended by God. This was
the legalism that Jesus addressed when confronted by Pharisees (Matt 12:1-5). Religious
training was an important function. Pro forma worship included sacrifice, ritual bathing, prayer,
communal dining, and observance of the holy days with pilgrims coming great distances, and
____________________
90 Ibid, Kostenberger, 100.
91 Pliny the Elder, Historica Naturalis, V.17, 29.
92 Ibid., Kostenberger, 103.
93 Ibid., Grant, 227.
94 Ibid, Kostenberger, 99.
13
swelling the population of Jerusalem during those periods.95 Pharisees and Sadducees came
together into governing bodies, established originally as the Council of Elders by returning priest
and builder Ezra.96 Alongside the Council of Elders was the Sanhedrin, a body of Pharisees and
Scribes who regulated education, and garnered increasing power in the theocracy that Judea had
become.97 The temple was still the cultural center of Judea, the focus of government and religion,
a hub for commerce, but it had ceased to function in the capacity that God had ordained through
Moses. The birth of the synagogue is an unrecorded event, but scholars believe that they existed
before the Second Temple was built, grew throughout the entire Second Temple Period, and
flourished after the temple was destroyed in AD 70.98
Synagogue Worship
Ancient synagogues, “the institutional matrixes in which two world religions were born,
have been discussed and debated by scholars of Early Judaism and Christianity since modern
historical research entered the world of academics around the sixteenth century,” according to
Anders Runesson, et al.99 The Judeans understood the Babylonian conquest and captivity to be
God’s punishment for their rebellion.100 A revival occurred that resulted in the permanent
allegiance to the worship of the monotheistic God of Abraham.101 As discussed above (Second
Temple Worship), religious fervor was not expressed at all times in all segments of the
population.
Although the birth of the synagogue is lost to history, many scholars believe that they
originated during the Babylonian revival.102 Prophetic OT Scripture seems to sanction the
____________________
95 Ibid., Grant, 218.
96 Ibid., Grant, 218
97 Ibid., Kostenberger, 68.
98 Ibid.
99 Anders Runesson, Donald D. Binder, and Birger Olsson, The Ancient Synagogue from its origins to 200 C.E.: A Source Book, (Boston: Brill, 2010), 1.
100 Ibid., Kostenberger, 68.
101 Ibid., 99.
102 Ibid.
14
institution as God-ordained, foretelling a need unsuspected in the time of the prophet Ezekiel:
“Thus saith the Lord GOD; Although I have cast them far off among the heathen, and although I
have scattered them among the countries, yet I will be to them as a little sanctuary in the
countries where they shall come” (Ezek 11:16b). Like the Jewish community as a whole, the
synagogue adapted in many ways, but did not discard the ancient theology. Levine concludes
that synagogues complemented temple worship, rather than competed with it, expanding access
for religious expression to Jews who lived away from Jerusalem.103 Synagogues were community
based, providing regular access to worship God and participate in the rituals of Judaism.102 In a
paradigm change, God came to the people instead of the people coming to God. Sacrifice was
forbidden outside of the temple. The synagogue was, until the destruction of the temple in AD
70, an alternative, not a replacement. Azriel Eisenberg concludes that, “it is clear that the
synagogue was never regarded as a competitor of the Temple, but rather an extension of it.”104
The distinct role of the Second Temple Synagogue is illustrated by the establishment of a
“synagogue” room within the temple.105 Known as the “Hall of Hewn Stones,” it was a
combination courtroom and liturgical center where priests recited Shema during sacrices.106 In
this accommodation, Levine sees a suggestion of cultural change driving the formation of the
synagogue over extended time as community activities moved from the city gate to more
purpose-focused facilities.107 The archeological find known as the Theodotus Inscription, from
first century AD Jerusalem, lists community activities that scholars conclude to be those of the
synagogue, that include reading the law, studying, maintaining guesthouses, and priestly
leadership,108 the latter affirmed by Philo.109 As the temple, it was the center of community life:
____________________
103 Lee I. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 37.
104 Ibid., Eisenberg, 22.
105 Ibid., 43.
106 Ibid.
107 Ibid.
108 Ibid., Levine, 24-25.
109 Philo, Hypothetica, 7.12-13.
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within the confines of the synagogue the Jewish community seems to have not only worshipped
regularly, but also studied, held court, administered punishment, organized sacred meals,
collected charitable donations, housed the communal archives and library, and assembled for
political and social purposes.110 Additional functions included ritual bathing, a place of sanctuary
and manumission, and center for courts and societies.111 Supplementing the Second Temple, it
also filled the gap in its absence. “The Synagogue, one of the unique and innovative institutions
of antiquity, was central to Judaism and left indelible marks on Christianity and Islam as
well.”112 Along with the essential sense of community, many of these activities would be adapted
and adopted by the church.
Church Worship
As Jews based their religious experience and expression on God through Moses,
Christians found their authority and relationship with God and authority through Jesus: “As he is
the head of the body, the church: who is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead; that in all
things he might have the preeminence” (Col 1:18). Comparison must start with the recognition of
certain irreconcilable differences between Christianity and Judaism. Jesus declared Himself to be
the fulfilment of Old Testament prophecy as the long awaited Messiah (Matt 16: 13-17). He
established His church (Matt 16:17-18), not with the Jew who rejected him (John 1:11), but with
His elect, drawn from all nations (Rom 11:7-8). The resurrection of Jesus fundamentally changed
religious experience and expression from an expectation of the coming Messiah to a celebration
of the present Christ (Matt 28:9). Although rejected by his own, and moving on to the Gentile
world, He has not forsaken the Jews (John 1: 10-13).
The church developed as unremarkably as the synagogue had: both appear to have
____________________
110 Ibid., Levine, 37.
111 Donald L. Binder, Into the Temple Courts: The Place of the Synagogue in the Second Temple Period, (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1999), 389-449.
112 Ibid., Levine, 1.
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encouraged no one to document those events, only their existence.113 “The teaching of the
Apostles was very simple. They testified to what they had seen and heard of Jesus, to His love,
his sufferings, His death and resurrection.”114 Their message became the message of their
converts.115 Initially, Christian Jews had continued to worship in the temple and synagogues,
seeking converts among their countrymen (Acts 9:20). As the sect grew, friendly acceptance
decreased and animosity, especially among the religious leaders increased (John 16:2). Paul and
others faced increasingly fierce resistance in some synagogues and the temple (see Acts 18-
19).116 A uniquely Christian institution was needed: the church was born (Acts 16:5). A sense of
community even greater than that of Judaism was a hallmark of the Christian fellowship (Acts
2:42). In fact, it was a precept of the new sect: “God is faithful, by whom ye were called unto the
fellowship of his Son Jesus Christ our Lord” (1 Cor 1:9). They were told to forebear “one
another in love; endeavoring to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace” (Eph 4:2b-3). A
notable departure from Judaism was the designation of Sunday as the day of worship (Acts
20:18). The church began in the homes of the early Christians.
“And on the day called Sunday all who live in cities or in the country gather together in one place, and the memoirs of the Apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits. Then when the reader has finished, the Ruler in a discourse instructs and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. . . . But we all hold this common gathering on Sunday, since it is the first day, on which God transforming darkness and matter made the Universe, and Jesus Christ our Savior on the same day rose from the dead.”117
Animal sacrifice was replaced by His atoning sacrifice on the cross (Heb 7:26-28). The
hereditary priesthood was replaced by a priesthood of believers (1 Pet 2:9). The very temple was
____________________
113 Ibid., Levine, 4.
114 Ibid., Bendel, 11.
115 Ibid., Bendel, 11.
116 Ibid., 122.
117 Justyn Martyr, First Apology, 67.
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replaced by His body, and the festivals with His Person (John 2:18-22).
“Every day they assembled to hear the Word preached and unite in prayer. But especially on “the Lord’s day,” the day of the resurrection, (our Sunday), did they assemble with one accord, celebrating the holy Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper and strengthening each other in faith.” 118
The Christians traded ritual for love, reflecting the love of God (Matt 22:37) in their love for others (Matt 5:43-44).
The Greek word koinonia is often translated “fellowship.” It is more accurate to render it by “sharing.” The first believers had all things in common. They shared, first of all, in spiritual blessings. They participated together in the Holy Spirit, and soon they would participate in the Kingdom of God.119
Another significant difference was the universal outreach of Christians (Acts 14:1). Commanded
by Jesus to spread the Gospel, the Good News, throughout the world (Mark 16:15), His followers
complied, establishing new churches wherever they went (Acts 16:15). Detractors soon claimed
that the Christians were “These that have turned the world upside down (Acts 17:6b). With a
church bureaucracy still in its infancy, the first leaders were selected by their congregations
(Acts 14:23), with guidelines established by the Apostles (1 Tim 3), whether in their presence, or
in their absence, by letters which would be circulated among the churches, and would become
accepted as the canon of the NT.120
Yet, with all the fundamental differences, the similarities are striking, for both Judaism
and Christianity look to very similar ends: a relationship with God leading to a moral and
productive life.121 Scripture reading was important, both from the Old Testament canon, and
from the emerging New Testament. Congregational participation, as in the synagogue, was
encouraged and perhaps expanded to include singing or reciting favorite psalms (Eph 5:19-20),
doctrinal discussion, exhortation, and revelation (Acts14:27), interpretation of the growing body
____________________
118 Josephus, Antiquities, 14, 214-16.
119 Clarence Tucker Craig, The Beginning of Christianity, (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1943), 141.
120 Ibid., 154.
121 Ibid., 46.
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of literature, congregational participation (1 Cor 14:26), and “the foolishness of preaching” (1
Cor 1:21). Other commonalities included communal meals, collecting funds for benevolent
activities, housing of visitors, discipline (Matt 18:17a), and support for each other (Heb 10:24).
The first century church was a certainly not homogeneous in either doctrine or
practice,122 but it was in belief in their Savior, love and support for their own, and outreach to the
unsaved, first the Jew, then the Gentile. Paul and the other Apostles wrestled with the tough
problems, sometimes coming up with tough answers, but always building on the teachings of
Jesus to develop and maintain a “genuinely spiritual religion.”123
Conclusion
The God of Creation knew before he formed man from the dust of the earth that he
would fail. The great freedom of choice given the creature was, and is, too much for him. In His
infinite wisdom, He still created man. He gave the law to Moses to begin training His Chosen
People to meet His expectations. Again, knowing their proclivity to fail, He provided a place, not
only to meet with Him and worship Him, but also a dedicated priesthood to instruct and
intercede on their behalf, and a means of atonement through blood sacrifice, but only as a
shadow of the Perfect Sacrifice to come.
He established the tabernacle and the temple as that
meeting place between Himself and man. They were the centers of Jewish life, incorporating
religious, commercial, and legal activities in an institution designed to focus their lives on the
One God. Man turned them, along with his relationship with YHWH, a name too sacred to be
spoken, but not too sacred be abused, into a political and commercial quagmire. In His time He
brought the synagogue into being, quietly and without fanfare. It was a radical departure from
the temple that He had established, a singularity of contact with God and renewal for man,
giving improved accessibility and individual participation. In the fulness of time—His time—
____________________
122 Ibid., Craig,178.
123 Ibid.
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He brought His Son, Jesus, the Christ, the Messiah, into the world to live and teach among His
world, sinful because of the abuse of man’s free will, offering salvation and fellowship again
with the Creator. The people of the church were no more perfect than those of the temple: The
first book of the NT canon quotes Jesus on this issue (Matt 18:15-17).124 The church was to
reach out to a sinful world while protecting the sanctity of its own ranks.125
____________________
124 Ibid., Bendel, 12.
125 Ibid.
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Binder, Donald D. Into the Temple Courts: The Place of the Synagogues in the Second Temple Period. Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 1999, 89-449.
Craig, Clarence Tucker. The Beginning of Christianity. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1943, 46, 141-178.
Eisenberg, Azriel. The Synagogue Through the Ages. NY: Bloch Publishing Co., 1974, 22-26, 34-43.
Grant, Michael. History of Ancient Israel. NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1984, 120-121, 139-141, 199-240.
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